1. :
7.1 Simple and Complex Sentences
The Simple Sentence: consists only of one independent clause, or it is finite clause which
stands alone (it gives a complete meaning).
e.g. I like my mother.
I study English.
He smiled.
The Compound Sentence: It consists of two or more independent clauses.
e.g. I like John and John likes me.
Independent clause (main) conjunct independent (main)
The Complex Sentence: It consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate (dependent
clause) e.g. We shut the door before the animal escaped.
main clause subordinate clause
Sentences: that is, sentences consisting of only one clause.
2. A sentence which consists of one or more subordinate clause. Each
subordinate clause may be superordinate to one other clauses;
e.g. I think that you can do it, if you try.
3. Obligatory clause elements are: Subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial
We can usefully distinguish seven clause types which we may designate in:
-MAJOR
-MINOR
Clause Types:Minor
Minor Type: S V Od Cs
John made Mary a good husband. (John was a good husband to Mary)
4.
5. Note: Sometimes the Od, C, and A, are obligatory and sometimes they are optional.
They are obligatory because they are required, the complementation of the verb and
for meaning, if we omit them the sentence will be incomplete.
The patterns of 7.2 can be expanded by the addition of various optional objects and
adverbials.
The Students are on vacation. SVA
The students seemed happy. SVCs
6. One way of distinguishing the various clause types
is by means of transformational relations, or
relations of grammatical paraphrase.
Clauses containing a noun phrase as object can be
changed into other elements by:
1.Passivization
2. Paraphrase
7. 1.
Passivization be + -ed2 + (by phrase)
Active : Jack wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written (by Jack).
Active; Helen will do the work.
Passive: The work will be done (by Helen).
Active: My sister washes the dishes every day.
Passive: The dishes are washed every day (by my sister).
The (O object) assuming the function of subject (V pass = passive verb
phrase), the subject appearing (if at all) in an optional by phrase,
symbolized here as [A]:
Many critics disliked the play (S V Od)
= The play was disliked (by many critics) (S V pass [A])
8. Where the passive draws more attention to the result rather than to the action:
1.Get– replaces be →
Passive: The window was broken by my younger son.
Passive: I know how the window got broken.
2.Become = expresses A gradually achieved result:
e.g. With the passage of time, the furniture became covered in dust.
The following examples illustrate the passive with other clause types:
Queen Victoria considered him a genius. (S V O C)
He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria. (S V pass Cs [A])
An intruder must have placed the ladder there. (S V Od Aloc.)
The ladder must have been placed there by an intruder. (S V pass Aloc. [A])
My father gave me this watch. (S V Oi Od)
I was given this watch by my father. (S V O [A])
[(
This watch was given me by my father. (S V pass Oi [A
3.Type SVOO clauses have two objects, they often have two passive forms.
9. There is sometimes equivalence between types SV,
SVC, and SVA
as is shown by occasional equivalences of the
following kind:
1. S V = S V Cs
The baby is sleeping = The baby is asleep.
2. S V = S V A
He hurried. = He went fast.
3. S V C s = S V A
He is jobless = He is without a job.
10. An SVOC clause is often equivalent to a clause with an infinitive or that clause:
I imagined her beautiful.
I imagined her to be beautiful.
I imagined that she was beautiful.
1. SVOC = SVC → This equivalence shows that the O and the C of an SVOC
clause in the same relation as the S and C of an SVC
She elected him the captain. (SVOCo)
= He was the captain. (SV intensive Cs)
2. The SVOA = SVA = By intensive relation
He put the book on the shelf . SVOA
= The book was on the shelf. SVA
3. SVO O clauses can be transformed into SVO A clauses by the substitution of a
prepositional phrase for the indirect object, with a change of order.
She sent Jim a card. (SVOO)
= She sent a card to Jim. (SVOA)
She left Jim a card = She left a card for Jim.
To and for, in their recipient senses, are the prepositions chiefly involved
but others, such as with and of are occasionally found:
I' ll play you a game of chess = I’ll play a game of chess with/against you.
She asked Jim a favour → She asked a favour of Jim.
11. It must be borne in mind that one verb can belong, in various senses, to a number of
different classes, and hence enter into a number of different clause types.
No SV
The verb get is a particularly versatile one:
SVC: He’s getting angry.
SVA: He got through the window.
SVO: He’ll get a surprise.
SVOC: He got his shoes and socks wet.
SVOA: He got himself into trouble.
SVOO: He got her a splendid present.
Through the multiple class membership of verbs, ambiguities can arise:
She called him a steward.
could be interpreted either as SVOC or as SVOO.
12. a) is normally a noun phrase or a clause with nominal
function
b) occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses, and immediately
after the operator in questions
Jack is reading. Is Jack reading?
Operator Operator
c) has number and person concord, where applicable, with the verb
phrase.
The boy is clever. The boys are clever.
The woman is a doctor. She is a good mother.
Clause elements syntactically defined:
13. Clause elements syntactically defined:
An OBJECT
a) like a subject, is a noun phrase or clause with nominal
function
He is reading a book.
Object = NP
normally follows the subject and the verb phrase.
(
b
c) by the passive transformation, assumes the status of subject.
Active: Alex kicked the ball.
Passive: The ball was kicked (by Alex).
15. A COMPLEMENT (Subject or Object)
a) is a noun phrase, an adjective phrase, or a clause with nominal
function, having a co-referential relation with the subject (or object)
b)
Cs = follows the subject, verb phrase (intensive verbs)
He is kind. Cs = adj.
He is a doctor. Cs = np.
The assumption is [that things will improve]. Cs = a clause
Co = follows the S. and Vp (complex transitive verbs)
She considered him clever. Co = adj.
We elected him the captain of the team. Co =
np.
(
c) does not become subject through the passive transformation
16. An ADVERBIAL may be:
i) an adverb phrase
They study carefully.
ii) A noun phrase
I saw him last week.
iii) Adverbial clause
When I saw my friend, I greeted him.
iv) prepositional phrase
They put the books on the table.
b) is generally mobile, i.e. is capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause.
He carefully does the work.
He does the work carefully.
c) is generally optional
(Sometimes) he sings (beautifully),
i.e. may be added to or removed from a sentence without affecting its acceptability, BUT:
Sometimes they are obligatory.
adverbial of the SV A and SVO A patterns are obligatory.
We are in the classroom. (SVA)
They put the kettle on the stove. (SVOA)
17. Clause elements semantically
considered:
Semantic roles of clause elements
Participants
Every clause describes a situation which involves one or more PARTICIPANTS,
i.e. entities realized by noun phrases. We find two participants in (1):
Unfortunately, their child broke my window yesterday. (1)
:
The sentence in (1) contains
a verb describing the nature of the action,
a subject denoting an agentive participant (the doer of the action),
and a direct object denoting the affected participant.
In addition, it contains an adverbial evaluating the situation (unfortunately)
and an adverbial locating the situation in time (yesterday).
Participants: NP.S in the sentence (Subjects and Objects).
Subject = agentive participant = the doer of the action.
Direct object = affected participants.
Verb = describes the nature of the action.
Adverbial = different functions:
evaluating the situation,
locating the situation in time, ------
18. Subject
1-Agentive
John opened the letter.
2-Instrumental
The stone broke the window.
3-Locative
That hill is low.
4-Temporal
Tomorrow is my birthday.
5-Eventive
The concert is on Wednesday.
6-Recipient
She has a camera.
7-Affected
The window was broken by the boy.
19. Subject
Agentive, affected, recipient, attribute:
The most typical semantic role of a subject is AGENTIVE:
1. Agentive (personal, animate, being instigating of the action):
John opened the letter.
The man hit the enemy.
2. Instrumental (non-personal, inanimate, instigator of the action):
The stone broke the window.
The key opened the door.
The storm destroyed the village.
3. Locative (showing place or position):
That hill is low.
Chicago is windy.
London is a large city.
20. Subject
4. Temporal subjects (showing time):
Tomorrow is my birthday.
The subject can be replaced by empty it
It is my birthday tomorrow.
5. Eventive (abstract noun heads indicating activities or arrangements):
The concert is on Wednesday.
6. Recipient subjects:
a. With stative verbs such as: (have ,own, possess, etc.)
She has a camera.
He owns a house.
b. Verbs indicating a mental state.
He likes interesting novels.
I thought that you were mistaken.
c. Perceptual subjects
Foolishly, he tasted the soup.
21. Subject
7. Affected subjects:
a. Passive.
The boy broke the window.
The window was broken by the boy.
b. With Intensive verbs.
He got angry.
c. With intransitive verbs.
They are walking on the sides of the street.
d. The empty subject [it] or the [prop it] which refers to nothing.
It is raining.
It is cold.
22. Direct Object:
1. AFFECTED
Participant; i.e. a participant (animate or inanimate) which does not cause the happening
denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way
The key opened the door.
Many MPs (Members of Parliament) criticized the Prime Minister.
2. Locative (showing place or position)
They climbed the mountain.
They reached the village.
3. Effected.
A. The effected O exists by virtue of the activity indicated by the verb.
For example:
Baird invented the television. (no television without invention)
He wrote a letter.
B. Cognate Object. The object repeats partially or wholly the meaning of the verb.
They have fought a good fight. They sing a song.
C. Verbal noun preceded by a common verb of general meaning.
He did little work that day.
He made several attempts to contact me.
25. 7.17 Summary
Although the semantic functions, of the elements
(particularly S and O) are quite varied, there are
certain clear restrictions, such as:
that the object cannot be ‘agentive’ or ‘instrument’;
that a subject (except in the passive) cannot be
‘effected’;
that an indirect object can have only two functions
those of ‘affected’ and ‘recipient’.
*The assignment of a function to the subject seems to
have the following system of priorities:
26. Summary
If there is an ‘agentive’, it is S; if not,
If there is an ‘instrument’, it is S; if not,
If there is an ‘affected, it is S; if not,
If there is a ‘locative’ or ‘temporal’ or
‘eventive’, it may be S; if not,
The prop word it is S
Naturally, where the passive transformation
applies, it transfers the role of the direct or
indirect object to the subject.
27. Ch7: Concord.
Concord: is the agreement between the clause
elements of a sentence
-Concord of Number
-Concord of Person
Other Types of Concord:
S - C concord
S - O concord
Pronoun concord.
28. Concord
1- Concord of Number: S -V concord
S-V concord between the subject and the verb.
Singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb.
The most important type of concord in English is the concord of number.
S sg. + V sg. S pl. + V pl.
e.g.: The window is open. e.g.: The windows are open.
2- The clause in the position of subject has a singular concord.
(clauses as subject have singular concord) .
S clause + V sg.
e.g.: [To treat them as hostages] is criminal.
e.g.: [After the exams] is the time to relax. (The time to relax is after the exams)
3- Nominal relative clauses may have singular as well as plural concord
e.g.: What were once human dwellings are now not found.
was
is
29. Types of Concord:
-Grammatical Concord is based on grammatical rule:
The house is near the bridge. The houses are too big.
Sg. Pl.
- Notional Concord, and Proximity:
A- Notional Concord is the agreement between the verb and the subject according
to the idea of number rather than the actual presence of the grammatical marker for
that idea.
e.g.: The family have travelled.
e.g.: The government have broken all their promises.
B- Concord of Proximity denotes the agreement between the verb or the
pronoun closely precedes it.
e.g.: one in ten take drugs.
e.g.: No one except his own supporters agree with him.
-
30. Collective Nouns:-
Collective Nouns are notionally plural but grammatically singular.
e.g.: The committee has met and it has finished the proposal.
undivided body
have they have
singular/non-personal plural & personal
e.g.: The family has travelled abroad.
have
The singular stresses the non-personal collectivity within the group
and the plural stresses the personal individuality of the group
(government, army, team, family).
31. Coordinated Subjects:
1-Non appositional coordination.
e.g. : Tome and Mary are ready now. [reduction of two clauses]
= Tom is ready and Mary is ready.
e.g.: what I say and what I think are my own affairs.
Conjoinings = single entity + sg. verb.
e.g.: The hammer and sickle was flying from a tall flag pole.
2- Appositional coordination
e.g. His younger brother and his subsequent editor of his collected
papers was with him at the death bed.
(his younger brother or his editor = the same person)
e.g. Your fairness and impartiality has been much appreciated
have [independent qualities]
32. 3- Concord with either….or/sg. v
e.g.: Either the mayor or his deputy is bound to come.
e.g.: Either the teacher or the students are to blame for the results.
Either the students or the teacher is to blame for the results.
(The whole of proximity)
*Indefinite Expressions of Amount:-
:
Indefinite and Negative Expressions of Amount: non, neither, either
e.g.: None [of the work] was done.
None [of works] are done.
e.g.: Neither student is correct.
Neither [of the students] are correct.
Either of the girls are left.
Neither student has left.
Neither of the students have left.
Same rules for every, each, everybody, anybody.
33. *Concord of Person: S + V
I am your friend. / He knows you.
when the coordinator is; either …or , neither ... Nor
the last noun phraseof the coordinate subject determines
the person of the verb.
e.g.: Neither you nor anyone else knows the answer
e.g.: Either my friend or I am going.
:
*Other Types of Concord
Subject-complement concord
S----Cs intensive relation
e.g. The child was an angel.
The children were angels.
34. Certain exceptions in subject complement concord:
e.g.: what we need most is books.
e.g.: They turned traitor.
→ (They become traitors)
e.g.: Good manners are a rarity these days.
35. Subject – Object CONCORD/of Number/person/and
Gender
He injured himself. [Reflexive Pronouns]
You should give yourself another chance.
Pronoun Concord third personal pronouns—
number + gender concord
He hurts himself.
She hurt her foot.
The climbers hurt their feet.
Neutral third person sg.
Everyone thinks they have the answer. Informal
to avoid number concord
Everyone thinks he/she has the answer. Formal
36. 7.31:The Vocative
A vocative: is a nominal element added to a sentence or a
clause optionally
denoting the one or more people to whom it is
addressed.
The vocative is characterized by optionality and freedom
of position, like
an adverb. The vocative can occupy initial, medial or final
position.
JǑHN, I WANT you (voc. S V Oi)
It’s a lovely DAY, Mrs. ˊJOHNSON (S V voc.)
YOU , ˊMY FRIEND, will have to work HARDER.
(S voc. V A)
37. 7.31:The Vocative
Intonationally,
The most characteristic intonations are shown above: fall-rise for aninitial
vocative;
or rise for medial and final vocatives
In form, a vocative may be:
1) A single name with or without title: John, Mrs. Johnson, Dr. Smith
2) The personal pronoun you (markedly impolite);
e.g. Behave yourself you.
Or an indefinite pronoun;
e.g. Get me a pen, somebody.
3) Standard appellatives, usually nouns without pre- or post-modification
not even the possessive pronoun
a. FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS: mother, father, uncle; mom(my)
(AmE), mum(my) (BrE), dad(dy), auntie,
b. ENDEARMENTS: (my) darling/dear/honey (AmE)/love
c. TITLES OF RESPECT: sir. madam. My Lord. Your Excellency
Your Majesty, ladies and gentlemen.
d. MARKERS OF PROFESSION OR STATUS: doctor; Mr., Madam
Chairman:
Mr. President; (Mr.) Prime Minister; Father (for priest) Bishop.
38. Function of the Vocative:
1- One obvious function of a vocative in English is to
seek the attention of the person addressed, and
especially to single him out from others who may be
within hearing.
2- A second function is to express the attitude of the
speaker towards the addressee.
3- Vocatives are generally used as a positive mark of
attitude, to signal either respectful distance or
familiarity (varying from mild friendliness to
intimacy).
39. 7.33 Negation
1-The negation o f a simple sentence is accomplished
by inserting not
N' t between the operator and the predication
The negative particle is placed after the auxiliary.
The attempt has succeeded. /The attempt has not
succeeded.
We may win the match We may not win the match.
2-With verb Be (am, is are, was, were)
She is a teacher. / She isn't a teacher.
He is coming. / He isn’t coming. /
Is he playing?
40. 7.33 Negation
3- If we have no auxiliary verb, the verb (to do) is
inserted:
They understood the problem
They did not understand the Problem.
Did he understand the problem?
4- With Lexical verb have:
In British English:
Affirmative: They have enough money.
Negative: They haven't enough money.
Question: Have they enough money?
In American English:
Affirmative: They have enough money.
Negative: They don’t have enough money.
Question: Do they have enough money?
41. 7.34: Abbreviated Negation:
In circumstances where it is possible to abbreviate the operator
by the use of a contracted form enclitic to the subject (usually
only a pronoun).
S = pronoun + enclitic form of/ operator + enclitic form of not
He isn’t coming.
We aren’t ready.
They haven't caught him
She won’t miss us.
He wouldn’t notice anything
He is not -------- / He’s not coming.
We are not --------/ We 're not ready.
They have not----- / They’ve not caught him.
She will not miss us. / She ’ll not miss us
He would notice something. / He’d not notice anything.
42. Non-assertive forms
There are items that do not naturally occur outside
negative,interrogative, and conditional clauses.
These items (which may be determiners, pronouns,
or adverbs) are the non-assertive forms, and the
following examples will
illustrate their range;
for example:
We haven’t seen any soldiers.
*We have seen any soldiers.
43. Non-assertive forms
Assertive-Forms Non- assertive Forms
We have had some lunch. We haven't had any lunch.
I was speaking to someone. I wasn't speaking to anyone.
I saw him somewhere. I didn’t see him anywhere.
She was somehow surprised. She wasn’t in anyway surprised.
He helped to some extent. He did not help at all.
John is coming too. John is not coming either.
He saw one or other of them. He didn't see either of them.
I like him a great deal. I don't like him much.
He is still there. He is not there now/any longer.
He's a long way. He's not been far.
She was away a long time. She wasn't away long.
They ate too many cakes. They didn't eat very many cakes.
Assertive/Non-assertive forms
44. Non-assertive forms
Note:
The negative particle
(not) + non-assertive form = a negative form
He hadn't anything.
(n't + non-assertive form)
= He had nothing.
(v + negative form)
45. 7.37: Alternative Negative Elements:
Instead of the verb, another element may be negated.
1- I bought some shirts.
I didn't buy any shirts.
I bought no shirts.
2- An honest man would not lie.
No honest man would lie.
3- I didn’t see any birds. I saw no birds.
Negative adjuncts are → initial → there is inversion of /
S & operator:
I will never make that mistake again.
Never again will I make that mistake. (formal).
46. 7.38: More than one non-assertive form:
I’ve never travelled anywhere by air yet.
I haven’t ever been on any of the big liners,
either.
No one has ever said anything to either of us.
Nobody has promised that any of you will be
released yet.
47. 7.39: Seldom, Rarely, etc.
There are several words which are negative in meaning, but not in
appearance.
They include seldom and rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely, little
and few
(in contrast to the positive a little and a few).
They have the following similarities to the ordinary negative
items:
They are followed by non-assertive rather than assertive forms:
I seldom get any sleep. (seldom + non-assertive form)
I’ve spoken to hardly anyone who disagrees with me.
When in pre-subject position, some of them can cause subject
operator inversion:
Crime rarely pays so well as Mr. Jones seems to think.
Rarely does crime pay so well as Mr. Jones seems to think.
Scarcely ever has the British nation suffered so much.
48. 7.39: Seldom, Rarely, etc.
In addition, there are verbs, adjectives, or
prepositions with negative meaning
that take non-assertive forms:
He denies I ever told him.
→
Without any
delay.
I forgot to ask for any change. → Against
any changes.
Unaware of any hostility.
Go without any delay.
49. Scope of Negation:
The scope of negation extends from the negative
word to the end of the clause,
or to the beginning of a final adjunct.
e.g.
There is thus a contrast between:
He wasn't listening all the time. (He listened
none of the time.)
He wasn't listening all the time. (He listened
some of the time.)
50. The Focus of Negation:
Some parts of the sentence are stressed or having
a rising tone which gives
different meanings according to different positions
of the stress.
e.g.' HARRY attacked the labour government.
(Harry and not anyone else attacked the labour
Government).
Harry attacked the 'LABOUR government.
(Harry attacked only the labour Government /
didn't attack any other Government.)
51. The Simple Sentence:
Statements, Questions, Commands, Exclamations:
A- The Statements: In which the subject is always present and it
precedes
(comes before) the verb.
Statements = S + V
e.g. Jack will go to London tomorrow.
e.g. The students take the exam next week.
B- Questions (interrogative): The question is marked by one of three
Criteria:
a. The placement of the operator in front of the subject.
e.g. Did he help you?
Have you finished the novel?
Will he leave for France?
b. The initial positioning of an interrogative wh.-element.
e.g. Who will visit you next month?
Where is your father?
c. Rising intonation
e.g. You will speak to the BꞌOSS?
52. There are three types of questions:
a. Major Types of Questions
1-Yes- No Questions: according to the type of answer they
expect / yes or no.
He is a student. (statement)
Is he a student?
Yes, he is.
Or
No, he isn't.
(changed into a question) by preceding the S by the operator -
rising intonation
Aux. v + S → Is he coming? Yes, he is.
He bought some shirts.
Did he buy any shirts?
V + S → Are they students? Yes, they are./ No, they aren't.
53. a. Major Types of Questions
-Tag Questions: They are questions appended to the sentence.
They consist of: Operator + (S = Pronoun)
Sentence → negative → = tag positive.
He can't swim, ᷇can he?
Sentence → positive → = tag negative.
He can swim, ᷇can't he?
They saw a good film, didn't they? Yes, they did. (Short answer)
They saw a good film. (Long answer).
Declarative Questions: it is an exceptional type of yes- no questions
identical in form to a statement, except for the final rising question
intonation.
E.g. You‘ve got the exPL'Osive ?
54. Wh.-questions
2. Wh.-questions: Questions in which the wh.–
element comes at the beginning
of the sentence . It seeks information . It
pronounced with a falling intonation:
Wh.- words: who, what, where, why, whose,
which, w here , when, how.
Who came late?
When did he travel'?
Where does he live?
55. Alternative Questions
3. Alternative Questions:
Alternative Questions include options:
1-Like yes- no questions / except for rise -fall intonation
Is he t᷇alking or lis᷆tening ? listening.
Yes-no questions: Are you c᷇oming?
rise / Yes, I'm coming.
Alternative question: Are you c᷇oming or n᷆ot?
rise- fall / coming.
2- Like Wh. questions. rise on each element except for
the last.
e.g. Which color do you prefer? ᷇ red green or᷆ blue?
I would prefer green.
56. b. Minor Types of questions:
1- Exclamatory questions: it is a question in form but it
functions as an exclamation.
e.g. Hasn't he grown!
2- Rhetorical question: it functions as a forceful
statement
It is of 2 kinds:
Positive: which is like a strong negative and a
Negative rhetorical question which is like a strong
positive one
e.g. Is that a reason for despair? Surely it is not a reason.
57. C. Commands
Without a subject/ With a subject
A command is different from a statement in that:
-It has no subject.
-It has an imperative finite verb( base form)3.Many sentence
patterns as the statements.
S.V: Read. (V)
SVC: Be reasonable. (VC)
SVOA: Put the book on the shelf. (VOA)
-The imperatives are restricted to aspect, voice, and modality.
-There is no tense distinction or perfective aspect
-The progressive aspect rarely occurs:
e.g. Be preparing the dinner.
The passive is equally rare, except when some verb other than BE
occurs.
58. Commands with a subject:
1-The subject is implied, the omitted subject of the imperative verb is
the second person pronoun (you)
e.g. Behave yourself.
2-The subject is retained : Sometimes the subject (you) (Stressed) is
retained (kept) to
express irritation (the speaker is angry) .
In such acase, we don't use markers of politeness such as (please)
e.g. ꞌYou be quiet.
e.g. ꞌYou mind your own business, and leave this to me.
e.g.*Please, be quiet. (you can't use please)
Sometimes the subject is mentioned to single out two or more distinct
addresses
(3rd person sg.)
e.g. Jack and Helen stand over there.
Somebody open the door.
59. Commands with a subject:
It is easy to confuse the subject, in these commands,
with a vocativenoun phrase.
The subject always precedes the verb, the vocative is
an element that can occur in
final and medial, as well as initial, positions in the
sentence. Another difference is that
the vocative, when typically (fall-rise); the subject
initially placed, has a separate tone unit merely
receives ordinary word stress.
VOCATIVE: MǍRY, play on MY side.
(initial vocative = fall-rise).
Play on MY side MˊARY. (rise-final position).
SUBJECT: 'Mary play on My side. (word-stress).
60. Commands with let
First person imperatives can be formed by proposing the
verb let
followed by a subject in (where relevant) the
objective case7.
1- Let + S-objective case/ 1st person + base verb
Let us/ let's all work hard.
Let me have a look.
2- 3rd person subjects
Let each man decide for himself.
If anyone shrinks from this action, let him speak now.
61. 7.60: Negative Commands:
7.60: Negative Commands:
To negate
1. 2nd and 3rd person imperatives, one simply
a- adds an initial Don’t.
b- replacing assertive by non-assertive forms.
e.g. Open some windows. ~ Don’t open any windows.
e.g. You open the door. ~ Don’t you open the door.
e.g. Someone open the door. ~ Don’t anyone open the door.
1st person imperatives with let have two possibilities:
Let’s open the door ~ Let's not open the door.
or
Don't let's open the door. (informal).
3rd person imperatives with let.
Don’t let anyone fool himself that he can get away with it.
62. 7.61: Persuasive Imperatives:
A persuasive or insistent imperative is created
by the addition of do with a nuclear
tone before the main verb
Do have some more sherry.
Do let’s go to the theatre.
63. 7.62: D. Exclamations:
Exclamatory utterances introduced by what
(plus noun phrase) or how,
there is generally no subject-operator inversion:
What an enormous crowd came! (S V).
What a time we’ve had today! (Od S V A).
How delightful her manners are! (Cs S V).
How I used to hate geography! (A S V Od).
What a long time it lasted! (A S V).
64. :
Reference
A University Grammar of English
Randolph Quirk-Sidney Greenbaum
Chapter 7
Prepared by: Afrah k. Rashid
University of Mosul / College of Arts /
Department of English / Third Year
/ Second Semester / Evening Class
