4.human development presentation

Definition
• Human Development is the scientific study the
patterns of growth and change that occurs throughout
life
• Two Types of Change:
• 1.Quantitative change refers to physical growth like
progress in height or weight.
• 2. Qualitative change refers to the change of
function of an organ, resulting to improve efficiency
and accuracy.

Aspects of Human
Development
• 1. Physical development - changes in the body
structure and motor skills.

• 2. Perceptual development - development of
sensory capacities such as the changes in the seeing
and hearing abilities of infants.

Aspects of Human
Development
• 3. Cognitive or Intellectual development - change
in mental abilities, learning capacity, memory,
reasoning thought processes and language.

• 4. Personality and Social development - changes
in self-concept, gender identity and one’s quality of
interpersonal relationship.

8 Stages of Development
• 1. Prenatal stage
• 2. Infancy (0-2 years old)
• 3. Early childhood (3-6 years old)
• 4. Middle childhood (7-12 years old)
• 5. Adolescence (13-19 years old)
• 6. Young adulthood (20-35 years old)
• 7. Middle adulthood (36-49 years old)
• 8. Late adulthood/Old age (50 years old-
Death)

Process of Development
 Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to
offspring
 Every 28 days a female ovulates and releases an egg
cell to fallopian tube.
 At the height of copulation the male parent releases
sperm cells (300-500 million) inside the female’s
vagina. The healthy sperms are programmed to swim
and seek out the egg cell and fertilize it.

Female Egg Cell

Male Sperm Cell

 Out of the millions of sperms, only about 50 of them will
be able to come close to the egg cell
 The sperms will release enzyme that dissolves the jelly-
like coating of the egg cell.
 Meanwhile, the egg is no passive participant; it actually
embraces the lucky sperm cell.
 To avoid penetration by more than one sperm, the egg
produces brief electrical shocks on its surface (lasting
about 30 seconds) followed by a hard protein coat.

 The sperm cell is held down on the egg’s membrane,
while the coat rises above it, pushing all the other
sperms away.

 The egg pulls the sperm inside itself, and moves its
nucleus to meet that of the sperm.

 Fertilization, the union of the egg and the sperm,
produces a single cell that is called the zygote, which
contains 23 chromosomes (strands of genetic material)
contributed by the sperm and 23 chromosomes
contributed by the egg.
 Chromosomes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), each segment of the DNA is a gene, the basic
unit of heredity.

 These 46 chromosomes provide programming for
inherited characteristics like blood type, height, skin
color, and so forth. The 46 chromosomes align in pairs
(23 pairs).

 The first 22 pairs are called autosomes, while the 23rd
pair are called sex chromosomes, they will determine
the sex or gender of the developing baby.

 All eggs and 50% of all sperm cells contain x sex
chromosomes, while only the remaining 50% the
sperm cells have a y sex chromosome.

 A zygote with xx chromosome will become female
and a zygote with xy chromosome will become a
male.

 There are two types of genes, the dominant genes,
which carry dominant traits (the stronger one), and
recessive genes which carries recessive traits (the
weaker one).

 Incomplete dominance occurs when the dominant
trait was not able to cover up the recessive trait.

 Codominance happens when two different dominant
traits coexist in the offspring, as in the case of a
combination of blood type A and blood type B, which
results to having blood type AB.

 Some traits are called sex-linked traits. These traits
only appear in a particular gender (males)

 Examples of such are: baldness, hemophilia and
colorblindness, all manifested by the male population.

 The genetics cluster of traits that you have, and are
observable from the outside is your phenotype.

 Your total Genetic make up, observable and not, is
your genotype.

Kinds of Twins
• 1. Identical or Monozygotic Twins – Twins that
developed from a single zygote that split. They look
alike because they share almost the same genetic
make up.
• 2. Fraternal or Dizygotic Twins – Twins the
developed from the simultaneous union of 2 pairs of
egg and sperm cell. They do not share the same
genetic make up and may be of different gender, one
male, one female.

Sex Chromosome Disorder
• Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)
• - Occurs when a genetic male has an extra x
chromosome
• - Abnormal testes, no sperm production,
reduced testosterone production
• - Tall, poor muscular development, enlarged
breasts


• Turner’s Syndrome (XO)
• - There is a missing chromosome

• - Short, no menstruation
• - Sexually underdeveloped females

• Superfemale Syndrome (XXX)
• - Intellectually deficit females
• - Appears quite normal

• Supermale Syndrome (XYY)
• - Taller than normal males
• - Below average intelligence

Autosomal Abnormalities
• Down’s Syndrome (trisomy 21)
• - An extra sex chromosome appeared in the
21st pair of autosomes
• - Mentally retarded
• - Sloping forehead, protruding tongue, short
limbs, flattened nose, oriental in appearance

• Edward’s Syndrome (trisomy 18)
• - An extra sex chromosome appeared in
the 18th pair of autosomes
• - Abnormally small mouth, malformed
ears, elongated skull, clenched hand, short
breast bone
• - With congenital heart disease

• Patau’s Syndrome (trisomy 13)
• - An extra sex chromosome appeared in the 13th
pair of autosomes
• - Defects of eye, nose, lips, ears and forebrain
• - Having one eye at extreme cases
• - Has more that the normal number of fingers or
toes

 Other congenital defects (like congenital blindness,
heart disease) may be a result of maternal diseases
(like malaria, chicken pox, German measles),
malnutrition, alcohol, smoking, emotion problems,
pills, drugs, endocrine irregularities and blood
incompatibilities.
 Collectively, these environmental forces that hinder
the healthy development of an unborn child are
called teratogens.

Teratogens
 Rubella (German Measles) – Blindness, deafness,
heart abnormalities
 Syphilis – mental retardation, physical deformities,
maternal miscarriage
 Addictive drugs – low birth weight, addiction to the
drug, possible death from withdrawal
 Smoking - premature birth, low birth weight and
length

Teratogens
 Alcohol – mental retardation, low weight, small head,
limb deformities
 Radiation from X-rays – Physical deformities, mental
retardation
 Inadequate diet – reduced brain growths, low weight
and length
 Being your than 18 – premature birth, increased
incidence of Down syndrome
 Being older than 35 - increased incidence of Down
syndrome

Assumptions About the
Stages of Human Development
 Behaviors at a given stage are organized around a
dominant theme or a coherent set of characteristics.
 Behaviors at one stage are qualitatively different from
the behaviors at an earlier or later stage.
 All children go through the same stages in the same
order, but may vary in pace.

Prenatal Development

1. Germinal Stage (Fertilization – 2 weeks)
- Rapid cell division
- By the end of the stage, the fertilized egg
becomes a blastocyst (about the size of a
pinhead) and plants itself in the wall of the
uterus.

Fertilization

Play video-human fertilization

Cell Division

Day 1

Day 3

Day 6

2. Embryonic Stage
(end of 2 weeks – 2 months)
- Major body systems and organs develop.
- Organism becomes vulnerable to
environmental influences.
- Most likely occurrences of chromosomal
abnormalities.


2. Embryonic Stage
- 1st month – Measures quarter of an inch
- 2nd month – As big as an adult’s smallest
toe; back bone formed; legs and arms
begin to form; facial features take shape.

3. Fetal Stage (end of 2 months – Birth)
3rd month – 3” ; 25 grams; Assumes human
form; large head; starts bone formation
(teeth buds, nails); genital becomes more
recognizable.
4th month – 13.5 cm.; 120 grams; about the
size of a small orange; broad face, eyes
widely separated; capable of swallowing and
kicking; nails/eyebrows start to grow.


5th month – 7.3”; 440 grams; vital organs
developed; more frequent movement.
6th month – 9”; 1.75 lbs.; large head, lean
body; with skin wrinkles; skin pink in color;
fine downy hair (lanugo) cover the body; eye
brows, eye lashes visible.
7th month – 10.6”; 1.36 kg.; can open eyes;
can stretch and kick; skin is red and
wrinkled.


8th month – 12.2”; 5lbs.; fat begins to store in
the body; lungs fully developed; head/body
are proportionate; assume position for
delivery.
9th month – 14.2” ; 7lbs.; redness and wrinkles
fade; downy hair disappears.

 We as newborns come equipped with reflexes ideally
suited for our survival.
 We as newborns, prefer sights and sounds that
facilitate social responsiveness; we turn our heads on
the direction of human voices; we gaze longer at a
drawing of a face-like image than at a bull’s-eye
pattern.

Capabilities of a
Newborn

 We prefer to look at objects 8 to 12 inches away, which
just happen to be the approximate distance between a
nursing infant’s eyes and a mother’s.

Capabilities of a
Newborn

 Within days of birth, our brain’s neural networks were
stamped with the smell of our mother’s body; thus, a
week-old nursing baby, placed between a gauze pad
from its mother’s bra and one from another nursing
mother will usually turn toward the smell of it own
mother.

Capabilities of a
Newborn

 At three weeks, if given a pacifier that sometimes
turns on recordings of its mother’s voice and
sometimes that of a stranger’s. An infant will suck
more vigorously when it hears its now-familiar
mother’s voice.

Capabilities of a
Newborn

 Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses that
occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
 They are critical for survival
 Rooting reflex – turning one’s heads towards things
the touch their cheeks

Reflexes

 Sucking reflex – infants suck things that touch their
lips
 Gag reflex – reflex to clear the throat
 Startle reflex – a series of movements in which an
infant flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and
arches the back in response to sudden noise

Reflexes

 Babinski Reflex – a baby’s toes fan out when the
outer edge of the sole of the foot is stroked
 Grasping Reflex
 Infants lose these primitive reflexes after the first few
months of life; replaced with more complex an
organized behaviors.

Reflexes

Theories of Development
• Theory
• “An organized set of ideas that are
designed to explain development.”
• Essential for developing predictions about
behavior.
• Predictions result in research that help to
support or clarify the theory

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human
Development

• Psychodynamic - Freud, Erikson
• Learning - Watson, Skinner, Bandura
• Cognitive - Piaget, Kohlberg

Major Theoretical Perspectives on
Human Development
• A. Psychodynamic:
• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• Psychoanalytic
• Observations and notes that he made about life
histories of his mentally disturbed patients
• Hypnosis, free association, dream analysis
• We have goals or motives that must be satisfied

Human Development

• Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• Instincts, Goals and Motives
• Human behavior is energized by
psychodynamic forces
• Psychic (mental) energy

Human Development
• Biological Instincts
• Eros ( life instinct) – helps the child to survive;
directs life sustaining activities such as
respiration, eating, sex and the fulfillment of all
other bodily needs
• Thanatos (death instinct) – set of destructive
forces present in all human being ex. arson,
murder, war, masochism

Development


• 3 Components of Personality
• Id (pleasure principle) – serve the
instincts by seeking objects that will satisfy
them; seeking immediate gratification of
instinctual needs

Human Development
• Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• 3 Components of Personality
• Ego (reality principle) – find realistic ways of
gratifying the instinct; block the id’s irrational
thinking; ability to delay gratification
• Superego (moral principle) – represents the
ideal and strives for perfection rather than for
pleasure or reality

Human Development

• a. Oral Stage (0-1) – reflects the infant’s
need for gratification from the mother. An infant’s
eating, sucking, spitting, and chewing do not only
satisfy hunger, but also provide pleasure.

Development

• b. Anal Stage (2-3) – reflects the toddler’s
need for gratification along the rectal area. During
this stage, children must endure the demands of
toilet training.

Development

• c. Phallic Stage (4-5) reflects the
preschooler’s gratification involving the genitals.
Children at this stage gratify their sex instinct by
fondling their genitals and developing an
incestuous desire for the opposite sex parent.

Development
• c. Phallic Stage
• Oedipus Complex – sexual attachment of a
male child to his mother
– Electra Complex – sexual attachment of a
female child to her father. The girl envies her
father for possessing a penis and wishes he
would share with her the valued organ that she
lacks.

Development

• d. Latency Stage (6 to puberty) – sexual
desires are repressed and the entire child’s
available libido is channeled into socially
acceptable outlets such as schoolwork and
vigorous play that consume most of the child’s
physical and psychic energy

Development

• e. Genital Stage (Puberty – onwards) – is
characterized by the maturation of the
reproductive system, production of sex
hormones, and a reactivation of the genital zone
as an area of sensual pleasure.

SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

EROGENOUS CRITICAL FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN
STAGE ZONE EVENT ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a
(Sexually particular stage is not resolved)
excitable zone
in the body)
Oral Stage (0-1 year Mouth and lips Feeding If the child was abruptly weaned, he
old) may manifest alcoholism, smoking,
fondness of kissing, oral sadism. If
the child was oversatisfied with oral
pleasures, he may become, gullible
and overdependent.
Anal Stage (2-3 years Anus Toilet Training If the child experienced toilet
old) training too early, he may become
controlling, over organized or
stubborn. If the child experienced
toilet training too late, he become,
sloppy, impulsive, or disorganized.

EROGENOU CRITICAL EVENT FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN ADULT
STAGE S ZONE BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a particular stage is
(Sexually not resolved)
excitable zone
in the body)

Phallic Stage Genitals Gender identification. If the issues during the phallic stage are
(4-6 years old) For boys, they develop sexual desire not resolved, the person may have
towards the mother and a desire to problem with interpersonal relationships
eliminate his competition, the father.
This is called Oedipus complex. Boys
as well as dealing with authority figures.
become afraid of the father retaliation They may also become uncertain about
and develops Castration anxiety. their sexual identity.
Then they seek to become or identify
with their fathers.
For girls, they begin with a strong
attachment to their mother but realize
that boys have penis and girls don’t
have. They blame the mother of this
inferiority, and develop Penis envy.
Their love is transferred to the father
who has the sex organ she wants.
This is called Electra complex. But,
they still must avoid the mother’s
disapproval and so they identify with
their mother.


EROGENO CRITICAL EVENT FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN
STAGE US ZONE ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in
(Sexually a particular stage is not resolved)
excitable
zone in the
body)

Latency This is a period of Peace; most sexual impulses lie dormant. The
(6-12 conflict in the earlier stage resolved or not will be repressed (forgotten).
years old)

Genital Genitals The quality of relationships and degree of fulfillment and
Stage (13 contentment that the person experiences during this long
years old stage are tied directly to the success the person has at
onwards) resolving conflicts during the earlier stages.

Development
2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

• Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1)
• Autonomy vs. Shame and Guilt (1-3)
• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
• Industry vs. Inferiority (6-Puberty)
• Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle
Adulthood)
• Integrity vs. Despair (Late Life)

ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS IF CRISIS IS IF CRISIS IS NOT
STAGE
RESOLVED… RESOLVED…

1. Trust vs. The infant needs The person develops The person will grow
Mistrust physical/psychologic the virtue of hope and mistrusting.
(0-2 years al care and a healthy optimism.
old) sense of attachment.

2. Autonomy The child’s desire to The person develops The person becomes
vs. Doubt be in control and the virtue of will. constricted and afraid
(2-3 years assert independence. of new experiences.
old) He may also engage
in power struggle
against authority.


STAGE
3. Initiative The child starts to The person The person becomes doubtful of
vs. Guilt socialize with develops the virtue his capacity to discover the
(3-6 years other children of initiative, sense world. He may get into fight for
old) though play. Play, of purpose, not cooperating.
in turn, becomes direction and
the primary learns the value of
medium of cooperation.
exploring the
world.

4. Industry The child The person The person wallows in feelings of
vs. Inferiority engages to more develops the virtue inferiority.
(6-12 years serious hobbies of competence.
old) and becomes
more competitive.


STAGE
5. Identity vs. This stage coincides the The person develops The person becomes
Identity period of adolescence. the virtue of fidelity; diffused and manifest
Confusion The person needs to being able to commit to incongruence or
(13-19 Years discover his uniqueness, values, organizations, inconsistency in his
old) feel a sense of and people. behavior.
belongingness, and
integrate various roles
into a single, consistent
individual.

6. Intimacy vs. The person looks for The person develops The person will float
Isolation intimacy in heterosexual the virtue of from one partner or
(20-39 years relationship. commitment and mutual job to another ,and fell
old) devotion; the ability to isolated.
sacrifice and
compromise.


STAGE RESOLVED… RESOLVED…
7. Generativity The person feels the need The person develops The person will feel
vs. Self- to guide and pass on what the virtue of stagnant, resist the truth
Absorption he has learned to the generativity, and about getting older, and
(40-65 years younger generation, value wisdom over relive youthful fantasies.
old) through mentoring or physical prowess.
teaching. He assesses if
he has made the right
decisions in their life.

8. Integrity vs. The person experiences The acquires the The person lives the
Despair decline in physical health. sense of wholeness remainder of his life in
(66 years old He wants to know if he or integrity and the despair.
onwards) had lived well. virtue of wisdom.

Development

• B. Learning Theory
• Concentrates on how learning influences
behavior.
• Emphasizes the role of experience.
• Stresses the influence of consequences on
behavior.
• Recognizes that people learn from watching
others.

Development

• 1. Waston’s Behaviorism
• Learning determines our behavior.
• Experience is sufficient to explain the
course of development.

Development
• 2. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
• The consequences of a behavior determine
whether it will be repeated.
• A pleasant consequence increases the chance
a behavior will be repeated.
• An unpleasant consequence decreases the
chance a behavior will be repeated.

Development
• 2. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
• Positive Reinforcement - A pleasant
consequence that increases behavior.
• Negative Reinforcement - Strengthening a
behavior by removing or avoiding an
unpleasant condition.
• Punishment - An unpleasant consequence
that decreases the frequency of a behavior.

Development
• 3. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
• Observational Learning, or Imitation
• People learn by watching others.
• Imitation is more likely when subject of
observation is seen as smart, popular, or
talented. Imitation is more likely when subject of
observation is rewarded for the behavior

Development

• C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Emphasizes the development of the
thought processes as we mature.
• Two approaches to the development of
cognition:
• We develop our thinking in stages
(Piaget, Kohlberg).

Human Development
C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• 1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory
• Children gradually learn more about how the
world works by little “experiments” in which
they test their understanding.
• Cognitive development consists of stages in
which children’s understanding of their
surroundings become increasingly complex
and accurate.

Development
1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory

2. a. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
• The Child interacts with the world through
sensation and movement.
• Develops the ability to hold a mental
representation of objects.

Human Development
• C. Cognitive-Developmental
Theory
1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

• b. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
• Develops the ability to use symbols, such as
numbers and words, to represent objects.
• Egocentric: understands the world only from
his own perspective.

Development
Theory

– c. Concrete Operational Thought (7 years
to early adolescence)
• Can use logic and reasoning
• Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical

Development
Theory

– d. Formal Operational Thought
(Adolescence and beyond)
• Thinks abstractly.
• Deals with the hypothetical and
speculation

JEAN PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

SENSORIMOTOR
0 –2 years
•explores world as little experimenters and develop schemas through
the senses and motor activities.
•Discovers relationships between their actions and consequences.
•An important concept acquired at this stage is object permanence:
before 8 months, the baby will stop searching for an object if it is
covered (out of sight, out of mind), but around 8 months, baby will
readily physically search for the hidden object, indicating that he or
she has already has a mental representation of the object- this is
object permanence


PRE-OPERATIONAL
2 – 7 years
•on top of object permanence, ability for symbolic thinking emerges; seen from
the child’s use of symbolic play and use of language.
•Use of language/words as symbol for things particularly has critical
importance.
•Implications for play: better to let child play with unstructured materials to help
facilitate his/her symbolic thinking.
•Child has still several limitations:
1.ego-centrism – inability to consider another person’s point of view.
2.animism – all things are living or animated and capable of intentions, feelings
and consciousness.
3.inability to decenter – inability to focus on simultaneous thoughts at the same
time.
4.Inability for conservation concepts – inability to follow transformations
mentally.


CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
7 – 11 years
•less egocentric: can now imagine other person’s point of
view; now aware that events outside the self have causes
outside the self.
•Thinking begins to be more logical but still limited to
concrete experience, i.e., can make logical judgments
based on stimuli that are present to the sense.
•Can perform more operations, e.g. counting, classifying
and thus can better understand the principles of
conservation.


FORMAL OPERATIONAL
11 years onwards
•hypothetical deductive reasoning develops; can now reason logically
and deal with abstractions, not just concrete things.
•Capacity for abstractions enables person to use and understand, for
instance, algebraic signs and metaphorical speech.
•Able to consider all variables and possibilities simultaneously, make
hypotheses, and solve problems by tackling these possibilities
systematically.
•Use of the pendulum problem to test formal operational thinking.

Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• 2. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
• Based on Piaget’s ideas of cognitive
development.
• Described the development of moral thinking
through stages of increasing maturity.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL REASONING

Level / Stage of Primary
Typical Moral Reasoning
Moral Reasoning Motivation
Pre
Conventional
Morality
Stage 1: The Primary A person must be obedient to powerful authority
Punishment at motive for because of fear of punishment.
Obedience action is the Ex. The husband must not steal the drug because he
Orientation avoidance of would be punished.
punishment

Actions are
Stage 2: motivated by The act is moral if it satisfied an important need of
Reward the desire for the person or some family member.
Orientation rewards Ex. He should steal the drug because his wife needs
it and he isn’t doing any harm to the druggist. He can
pay him pay.


Level / Stage
Primary
of Moral Typical Moral Reasoning
Motivation
Reasoning
Conventional
Morality
Stage 3: Good The child A moral action is one that causes others cause to
Boy/Girl strives to approve.
Orientation avoid the
disapproval of Ex. He should steal the medicine because society
others (As expects a husband to help his wife. He is only
distinct from doing something that is natural for a loving
avoidance of husband to do.
punishment)


Level / Stage
Primary
of Moral Typical Moral Reasoning
Motivation
Reasoning
Conventional
Morality
Stage 4: An act is Moral people are those who do their duty in order
Authority always wrong to maintain the social order.
Orientation / if it violates a
Authority- rule or does Ex. He should steal the drug because of people are
Maintaining harm to others allowed to be selfish and greedy, our civilization will
Morality break down. But he must pay the druggist back and
must be punished because people can’t take the
law into their own hands.


Post –
Conventional
Stage 5: Social The individual is able to Society has rules and both the
Contract recognize that laws are individual and society must fulfill their
Orientation / subjective, that they are parts of the contract.
Morality of Contract not worshipped in
and Democracy themselves but are Ex. Before you say that stealing is
relative to the group. wrong, you should consider that the
Laws exist only because law should not allow the druggist to
we agree about them (The keep secret a life-saving formula. In
Aspect of Social this case, it seems reasonable for
Contract). Inasmuch as him to steal the drug.
the person respects the
rules of the other group,
however, he or she still
steps in if what at stakes
is a non-negotiable value
(Life and Liberty)


Post –
Conventional
Stage 6: Ethical Individuals are concerned Society’s rules are arbitrary.
Principle with upholding their Different people may interpret them
Orientation / personal principles, and in different ways. The ultimate judge
Morality of the person no longer of whether something is moral is a
Individual makes an appeal to person’s own conscience.
Principles of society. Morality is just a
Conscience
matter of the person’s Ex. He must steal the medicine
conscience regardless of because if his wife died he could
what the society says. never forgive himself. When a choice
Hence, the person may must be made between disobeying a
sometimes feel it law and saving a life. The higher
necessary to deviate from principle of saving a life must prevail.
rules when the rules
conflict with moral
principles.

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