1. ANESTHESIA FOR SPINE SURGERY
Dr. Ashraf Arafat Abdelhalim , MD
Professor
Department of Anesthesia, Alexandria University,
Egypt
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2. Anesthetic considerations
Trauma for fixation of a spine
Tumor for resection
Degenerative diseases
Correction of deformity as scoliosis
Protrusion of intervertebral disc
Spondylosis
Infection & abscess drainage
Vascular malformation
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3. Anesthetic problem
Patient position
Increased blood loss
Spinal cord protection
Postoperative blindness
Problem related to site
Cervical :
Difficult intubation,
Anterior approach : pneumothorax & CVS changes
Postoperative edema , brain stem, neck & airway
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4. Thoracic : Thoracotomy & one lung anesthesia
Lumber : spinal and epidural can be used
Problem related to the cause:
Acute spinal cord injury complication
Chronic spinal cord injury complication
Ankylosing Spondylitis, rheumatoid Arthritis &
kyphoscoliosis
Congenital abnormality e.g. Down s
syndrome
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5. Pre-Operative Assessment
Airway Assessment: .
Mallampatti classification
Mouth opening .
Previous difficulty in intubation .
Restriction of neck movement .
Stability of the cervical spine .
Neurological Assessment: documented
Co existing diseases : rheumatoid arthritis
is essential to discuss preoperatively the
stability of the spine with the surgeon.
6. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Any existing ventilatory impairment
Any signs of pulmonary infection, asthma etc
Spine deformities eg. Scoliosis kyphosis ankylosis etc.
Cardiovascular System :
Besides routine examination: B.P, heart sounds,
History: Hypertension Diabetes mellitus, Congestive
heart failure, Coronary artery disease
Renal and Liver function assessment
In Traumatic Spinal Injury: associated injuries eg,
tracheal major vessels, esophagus,, 6
7. Neurological assessment:
The full neurological assessment should be documented.
In C-spine surgery, the anesthesiologist should avoid
further neurological deterioration .
Muscular dystrophies may involve the bulbar muscles,
increasing the risk of postoperative aspiration.
The level of injury and the time elapsed since the insult
are predictors of the physiological derangements of the
CVS and respiratory systems which occur perioperatively.
In < 3 weeks of the injury, spinal shock may still be
present. After this time, autonomic dysreflexia may occur.
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9. Anesthesia technique
Premedication:.
Avoid heavy sedation if there is respiratory
impairment
Anticholinergic : prevent wetting of tape of ETT
Facilitate fiberopic bronchoscopy
Protection a gainst aspiration: H2 blockers
NSAIDs should be stopped at least
10days before elective surgeries
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10. Induction:
Choice of induction technique:
i.v. or inhalation ?
Etomidate is of choice
Thiopentone or propofol , but avoid large doses in
spinal shock
Airway
C-spine stability
Consider using a wire reinforced tube to avoid tube
kinking and occlusion
Patients with C spine disease have a high incidence of
difficult intubation. 10
11. Choice of muscle relaxants:
Succinycholine or NDNMBs ?
Pt’s medical condition
Airway
Risk of aspiration
Intra-operative S. choline can be used in first 24
hours after injury, avoided between 1-2 days up to 6-8
months after injury
Avoid S. choline if malignant hyperthermia is
suspected e.g. scoliosis
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12. Awake or asleep
Attention to minimizing motion of the C-spine
Positioning may be associated with the risk of
neurologic injury
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13. Direct or fiber-optic laryngoscopy
Direct laryngoscopy: Intubation can be achieved without any
neck movement (manual in-line stabilization or a hard collar)
Fiber-optic laryngoscopy:
Fixed flexion deformities: involving upper T-spine/c-spine
Pts wearing stabilization devices such as halo vests
Anatomical reasons: micrognathia, limited mouth opening
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14. Maintenance :
Maintain a stable anesthetic depth
Positioning of patient, check airways
Avoid sudden changes in anesthetic depth or BP
Maintain a constant depth of NMB
Maintain stable hemoglobin & to avoid over
hydration
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15. Maintenance
Common practice:
Inhalational with opioids :
interfere with monitoring of SSEPs
Total intravenous anesthesia: faster recovery especially if
SSEPs are monitored
Opioids:
not interfere with monitoring of SSEPs
Stable depth of anesthesia
Pain – free recovery
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16. Intraoperative fluids therapy
Dextrose containing solution should be avoided
Hyperglycemia worsen ischemic neurological
injury
Avoid circulatory under- load : to avoid
severe hypotension
Avoid circulatory over- load : to avoid
pulmonary edema with left ventricular
dysfuction
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17. Transfusion Management
Strategies : reduce the risk of allogeneic transfusion
Preoperative autologous donation (PAD),
Acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH),
Perioperative cell salvage techniques (PCS),
Deliberate hypotension
Pharmacologic interventions (ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC )
Combination of strategies
Operative position to prevent abdominal
compression
Surgical hemostasis
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18. Reversal
Patient made supine
Thorough endotracheal and oral suction
Oxygenated with 100% oxygen
I.V.- Neostigmine Glycopyrolate
Extubation:
Fully awake with full motor power.
Some patients may require postoperative ICU
An airway exchange catheter (AEC) through
the ETT before its removal 18
19. Intraoperative Problems
Respiratory dysfunction : in case of traumatic
spinal cord injury
Intraoperative hypothermia: large sized
wounds, prolonged surgeries, loss of thermal
regulation in acute spinal cord injury
increased blood loss
Problems with Transthoracic approach:
thoracotomy and one lung ventilation
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20. Problems with Anterior Cervical Approach:
Injury to trachea, esophagus, sympathetic
chain, carotid sheath, pneumothorax
Injury to RLN,
Spinal cord protection:
Surgical decompression as soon as possible
Corticosteroids as methyl prednisolone
Hpothermia: local to damaged area
NMDA receptor antagonist
Ganglioside GM-1 20
21. IF SSEP is abnormal :
Decreased amplitude more than 50%
Increased latency more than 50%
Complete loss of waveform
ACTION
Inform the surgeons to search for the cause
Adequate oxygenation
Paco2 should be normalized
ABP should be normalized or slightly increased
Correct anemia and hypovolemia
If persist, do wake up test
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22. Postoperative care
Individualized for each patient
Most spinal surgery is painful
Local anesthetic and Opioid drugs can be
instilled into the epidural space before closing.
A regimen including patient-controlled
analgesia (PCA) combined with regular
oral/rectal analgesics is successful.
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24. Injuries: Eye
Corneal abrasions
Orbital edema
Postoperative visual loss ( POVL)
Post-operative visual loss (POVL)
POVL is a rare but devastating complication
1/1100 after prone spinal surgery
Causes:
Ischemic optic neuropathy (ION) (81%)
Central retinal artery occlusion (13%)
Unknown diagnosis (6%).
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25. Risk Factors for Postoperative Airway
Compromise
Patients undergoing multiple levels anterior C-spine
procedures may be at risk of post operative neck
and airway edema causing airway compromise.
Operative time more than10hrs,
Requirement for more than 4 unit transfusion,
Obesity,
Reoperations
Operation of 4 or more cervical spine level or
involving C2
Epstein NE. J Neurosurg 94:185 2001
26. Respiratory care : especially if affected
preoperatively e.g. scoliosis
Deep breathing exercise
Incentive spirometry
Brochdilators,analgesics& mucolytics
Adequate hydration
Postoperative ventilation if needed
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27. Positioning
Prone position : most spinal procedures
Supine position with head traction in anterior
approach to cervical spine
Sitting or lateral decubitus position : occasionlly
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28. Prone position
Induction and intubation in supine position
Turn prone as a single unit requiring at least 4 people
Neck should be in neutral position
Head may be turned to the side not exceeding the patients
normal range of motion or face down on a cushioned holder.
Arms should be at the sides in a comfortable position with the
elbow flexed ( avoiding excessive abduction at the shoulder
Chest should rest on parallel rolls (foams )or special
supports (frame) to facilitate ventilation
Check oral endotracheal tube, ckt, other attachments
Check breath sounds bilaterally
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29. Anesthetic problems of the
prone position
Potential problems Comments
Airway
ET tube kinking or dislodgement
Edema of upper airway in prolonged
cases
Abdominal compression
Impaired ventilation Avoid abdominal compression as far
as possible
Decreased cardiac output Bean bag mattress or pillow are better
than the supportive frames or kneechest
position
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30. Anesthetic problems of the prone position
Potential problems Comments
Eyes
Corneal abrasion Ensures eyes taped shut
Optic neuropathy Increased intraocular pressure
Decrease perfusion pressure
Reduce risk by avoiding compression
to the eyes, hypotension, low
hematocrit
Retinal artery occlusion Avoid pressure on the eyes
Head and Neck
Venous and Lymphatic
obstruction
Careful positioning to minimize
venous obstruction
Skull fixation Insertion of pins into skull can result in
a hypertensive response that is
difficult to control
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31. Anesthetic problems of the prone position
Potential problems Comments
Damage to major vessel
Aorta and Venacava Accidental damage following
perforation of anterior longitudinal
ligament produces major bleeding into
wound. Present with acute reduction
of blood pressure and
electromechanical dissociation arrest
High mortality
Iliac vessel Less acute presentation. High degree
of suspicion to avoid delayed
diagnosis
Increased epidural venous pressure
bleeding
(frames elevates)
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32. Anesthetic problems of the prone position
Potential problems Comments
Pressure necrosis of the nose, ear, forehead, breasts
(female),and genitalias (males)
Monitor disconnects hard to avoid; carefully manage.
Nerves:
Brachial plexus stretch or compression
Ulnar N compression: pressure to the olecranon
Peroneal N compression: pressure over the head of
the fibula
Lateral femoral cutaneous N trauma: pressure over the iliac crest
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34. Wake-up test
Lightening anesthesia at an appropriate point during
the procedure
Observing the patient’s ability to move to command.
It evaluates the integrity of the motor pathway.
Anesthesia requirements:
Reliable but quickly antagonized
Wakening should be smooth
No pain during the test
No recall
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35. Wake-up test
Anesthetic techniques:
Volatile-based anesthesia
Propofol-based anesthesia
Remifentanyl-based anesthesia
Disadvantages:
Requires pt’s co-operation
Risky to pt: falling from the table and extubation
Requires practice
Prolong the duration of surgery
Provides information at the time of the wake-up only
Does not assess sensory pathways
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36. SSEP (somato sensory evoked potentials)
The most common neurophysiological method for
monitoring the intra-operative spinal functional
integrity
The stimulus applied to the peripheral N (tibial or
ulnar)
The recording electrodes placed: cervical region,
scalp, or epidural space during surgery
Baseline data obtained after skin incision
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37. SSEP (somato sensory evoked potentials)
Responses are recorded intermittently during
surgery
A reduction in the amplitude by 50% and an increase
in the latency by 10% are considered significant.
SSEP tests only dorsal column function not motor
Rarely - post operative neurologic deficit reported
despite preservation of SSEP intraoperatively
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39. Anesthetics and SSEPs
Satisfactory monitoring of early cortical SSEPs is
possible with 0.5–1.0 MAC isoflurane, desflurane or
sevoflurane.
Nitrous oxide potentiates the depressant effect of
volatile anesthetics
Intravenous anesthetics generally affect SSEPs
less than inhaled anesthetics
Etomidate and ketamine increases cortical SSEP
amplitude
Clinically unimportant changes in SSEP latency
and amplitude after the administration of opioids
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40. Implication for SSEPs Monitoring
Eliminating N2O from the background anesthetic has
been shown to improve cortical amplitude and make
monitoring more reliable
SSEP latency will take 5–8 min to stabilize after the
step changes in volatile anesthetic concentration
Adding etomidate, propofol or opioids is
preferable to beginning N2O or increasing volatile
anesthetic concentrations when anesthetic depth is
inadequate
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41. If a volatile anesthetic is needed rapidly, sevoflurane
permits faster SSEP recovery after the acute need for
volatile anesthetic has been resolved
It is critical to avoid sudden changes in volatile
anesthetic depth or bolus administration of
intravenous anesthetics during surgical
manipulations that could jeopardize the integrity of the
neural pathways being monitored
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42. Anaesthetics and MEPS( Muscle evoke potentials)
Inhalational anesthetics suppress myogenic
MEPs in a dose- dependent manner
N2O appears to be less suppressive than other
inhaled agents.
Moderate doses of up to 50% N20 have been used
successfully to supplement other agents during
myogenic MEP monitoring.
Fentanyl, etomidate, and ketamine have little or
no effect on myogenic MEP and are compatible with
intra-operative recording. 42
43. Benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and
propofol also produce marked
depression of myogenic MEP.
However, successful recordings have
been obtained during propofol anesthesia
by controlling serum propofol
concentrations and increasing stimuli
rates.
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44. Anesthetics and MEPs
Myogenic MEPs are affected by the level of
neuromuscular blockade
By adjusting a continuous infusion of muscle
relaxant to maintain one or two twitches in a train of
four, reliable MEP responses have been recorded
Motor stimulation can elicit movement, and this can
interfere with surgery in the absence of neuromuscular
blockade
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45. Physiologic factors such as temperature,
systemic blood pressure, PaO2, and PaCO2
can alter SSEPs/MEPs and must be controlled
during intra-operative recordings
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46. Spinal cord injury
Neurological damage during surgery and
anesthesia is not limited to the site of surgery.
Paraplegia and quadriplegia have been
reported as a result of poor pt positioning.
Neurological damage is more likely at or near
the site of surgery on the spine.
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47. Spinal cord injury Risk factors:
Length and type of surgical procedure
Spinal cord perfusion pressure
Underlying spinal pathology
Pressure on neural tissue during surgery
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48. Spine surgery: Conditions of Increased Risk
Spinal distraction
Sub laminar wiring
Induced hypotension
Inadvertent cord compression
Certain instrumentation (Luque rods)
Ligation of segmental arteries
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49. Controlled Hypotensive Anaesthesia
Definition: It is the elective lowering of arterial B.P.
Advantage :
Minimization of surgical blood loss
Better wound visualization
Methods :
Proper positioning
Positive pressure ventilation
Administration of hypotensive drugs: sodium
nitropruside B - Blockers Nitroglycerine Propofol
Trimethaphan Inhalational Adenosine (Halothane/
isofluran)
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50. Controlled Hypotensive Anaesthesia (contd)
Safe level of hypotension :
In healthy young individuals mean arterial
pressure as low as 50 to 60 mm of Hg is
tolerated with out complication.
Chronically hypertensive patients have
altered autoregulation of CBF and reduction of
MAP more than 25% of base line not tolerated.
Patient with H/o transient ischemic attacks
may not tolerate any decline in cerebral
perfusion.
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51. Controlled Hypotensive Anaesthesia (contd)
Relative contra indication :
Pt having predisposing illnesses that lesson the margin
of safety for adequate organ perfusion
Severe anaemia
Hypovolemia,
Atherosclerotic vascular disease
Renal and Hepatic insufficiency
Cerebrovascular disease
Uncontrolled glaucoma
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52. Controlled Hypotensive Anaesthesia (contd)
Complication:( more likely in pt with anaemia)
Cerebral thrombosis
Hemiplegia
Acute tubular necrosis
Massive hepatic necrosis
Myocardial infarction
Cardiac arrest
Blindness from retinal artery thrombosis or
ischemic optic neuropathy
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53. Monitoring:
Intra arterial blood pressure monitoring
E.C.G. with S.T. segment analysis
Central venous monitoring
Measurement of urinary output
Monitoring of neurologic function (rarely)
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54. Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury
Acute Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury:
Common site C5-6 and T12-L1
Respiratory Impairment :
Intercostal muscle paralysis: if lesion at C5
Vital capacity 25% of normal
Diaphragmatic paralysis: if lesion above C3( as
phrenic nerve C3-C5)…… artificial ventilation is
mandatory
Paralysis of intercostal & abdominal muscles ….
Ineffective cough and decrease chest wall compliance,
retention of secretion , v/Q mismatch 54
55. Spinal shock:
Sympathectomy , hypotension, bradycardia, & hypothermia
Spinal reflexes ( areflexia
Motor power ( flaccid paralysis)
Autonomic Dysfunction:
Loss of thermal regulation …. Hypothermia
Gastrointestinal dysfunction: risk of aspiration
Bladder dysfuction
Sensory and motor Deficit:
lesion above C7 and T1 cause quadriplegia
Lesion above L4 cause paraplegia 55
56. Chronic Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury:
Respiratory dysfunction:
Pulmonary emoli due to DVT
Pulmonary infection & upper airway obstruction due to inability
to cough
Dyspnea due to airway hyperactivity
Some need partial ventilatory support & diaphragmatic pacing
Cardiovascular Dysfunction:
Reduced blood volume
Profound postural hypotension
Autonomic Dysfunction
Autonomic Hyperreflexia 56
57. Conclusions
Understand and appreciate the anatomy
and physiology of the spinal cord
Communicate with the surgeons
Explore new techniques but remember to
perfuse and monitor the patient
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