Educating social workers to establish well formed goals van voorhis et al

Educating Social Workers
to Establish Well-Formed Goals
Rebecca M. Van Voorhis
Robert Bennett
Valerie Chang
ABSTRACT. Although effective goal-setting is universally accepted as
good social work practice, students often struggle with establishing well-
formed goals. Therefore, the authors have developed an educational ap-
proach to engage students in learning the skills of effective goal-setting.
This manuscript presents a conceptual approach and instructional activi-
ties to prepare practitioners to establish well-formed goals, engage in
goal-focused actions, and evaluate goal attainment. [Article copies avail-
able for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH.
E-mail address: <docdelivery@haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.Haworth
Press.com> © 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]
KEYWORDS. Goals, outcomes, objectives, action plans, interventions
Setting effective goals is critical to the helping process and is uni-
versally accepted as good social work practice (Egan, 1998; Miley,
O’Melia, & DuBois, 1995; Woods & Hollis, 2000). The Joint Com-
mission on Accreditation of Hospitals and Organizations’ Accredita-
Rebecca M. Van Voorhis, PhD, is Associate Professor, Robert Bennett, DSW, is Assis-
tant Professor, and Valerie Chang, PhD, is Professor, Indiana University School of Social
Work.
Address correspondence to the authors at: IU School of Social Work, 902 West
New York Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202-5156.
Journal of Teaching in Social Work, Vol. 26(1/2) 2006
Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JTSW
© 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1300/J067v26n01_09 147

tion Manual for mental health providers states, “goals are at the heart of
the care planning process” (JCAHO, 1999, p. TX-9). According to
Hepworth, Rooney, and Larsen (2002), goals identify the outcome that
may be expected if the action plan is successful. Efforts to support and
aid client systems in setting and attaining goals are consistent with the
social work values of empowerment and self-determination (Collins,
Mowbray, & Bybee, 1999).
Despite such widespread acclaim for goal-setting in human services,
it is not common practice. In fact, M. Feichter (personal communica-
tion, September 6, 2001), director of clinical services for a homeless
service provider, is amazed that social service organizations have gotten
so far without the routine use of measurable outcomes to guide their
work. In our experience students often know that clear, well-formed
goals are important, but they have difficulties when they attempt to set
goals with client systems. Thus, the authors developed an educational
approach to move beyond admonishing practitioners to set goals, and
engage them in practicing and learning the skills of effective goal-set-
ting.
PURPOSE
This article presents a conceptual approach for preparing practitio-
ners for the important process of determining what goal(s) or out-
come(s) will be pursued as well as selecting paths that will lead to goal
attainment and supporting organizations and clients in taking the neces-
sary steps to achieve the desired outcomes. The approach uses the
Chang and Scott (1999) MAPS acronym which defines the criteria of
well-formed goals as Measurable, Attainable, Positive, and Specific.
The approach also focuses on two of Bordin’s (1979) three parts of
building the therapeutic alliance that research has found to be most
closely associated with successful treatment outcomes (Mallinckrodt &
Nelson, 1991). These two key components of the working alliance are:
(1) Goal agreement between client and practitioner and (2) Collabora-
tion on relevant tasks for achieving goals.
DESIGNING WELL-FORMED GOALS
Several contemporary social work texts discuss the importance of
establishing clear, specific goals for programs and agencies, as well as
148 JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN SOCIAL WORK

for practice with individuals and groups. For example, Egan (1998)
maintains that goals should be stated as outcomes that are specific,
challenging, prudent, realistic, sustainable, flexible, congruent with
the client’s values, and have a realistic time frame. Similarly, authors of
books about the solution-focused approach, such as Tohn and Oshlag
(2000), discuss the traits of well-formed goal statements: (1) realistic,
(2) specific, (3) focused on a positive outcome of starting something,
and (4) important to the client, not someone else. They stress the im-
portance of establishing well-formed goals so that both the client and
the worker know when outcomes have been achieved and termination
can occur. Other authors (Rosen, 1992; Woods & Hollis, 2000) have
discussed the importance of establishing both ultimate or long-range
goals and intermediate or short-term goals. As Woods and Hollis
stated, intermediate goals function as a “way station on the road to the
ultimate aim” (2000, p. 334). Thus, it is vital that students learn to help
clients form short- and long-term goals that meet the MAPS criteria.
Benefits of Well-Formed Goals
According to Locke, Shaw, Saari, and Latham (1981), goal-setting
affects performance by directing attention, mobilizing effort, and en-
hancing persistence. Research suggests that one of the factors that may
influence clients’ committing themselves to goals is the clarity with
which the goals are established (Beyebach, Morejon, Palenzuela, & Rodri-
guez-Arias, 1996; Orlinsky, Grawe, & Parks, 1994). Potocky’s (1993)
research on bereavement programs reported that treatment effective-
ness is connected to the clarity of goals for intervention. Potocky con-
cluded that “Bereavement intervention programs that aim to change
delimited, well-defined problems are more effective than those in which
goals are less clear” (p. 297). She further commented that although
some bereavement programs were not found to be effective, they may
actually have had beneficial effects for bereaved persons, but because
clearly stated outcomes were lacking, the program’s effectiveness could
not be documented.
From their practice experience, several therapists concluded that
creating clear, concrete, and specific goals with clients leads to greater
client motivation (DeShazer, 1985; Zilbergeld & Lazarus, 1987).
Hence, both research and practice experience show that the clearer the
goals, the more likely the client will be motivated to pursue them.
Van Voorhis, Bennett, and Chang 149

Barriers to Well-Formed Goals
Part of the instructional challenge in preparing students for effective
goal-setting stems from their limited exposure to well-formed goals.
Given the cultural milieu with its focus on overcoming problems such
as depression, alcoholism, or fatigue, there is a tendency to frame goals
in a negative, rather than positive, direction. Thus, clients can often be
heard saying, “I don’t want to feel suicidal,” or “I want to overcome the
urge to drink.” This negative focus is further reinforced by the wide-
spread use of the medical model by the health professions, in which the
goal is to “fix” whatever is wrong with the client. Thus, the goal be-
comes a “cure” for the disease or at least symptom relief rather than
seeking a positive outcome of health and wellness.
Similarly, our culture encourages setting ambitious goals rather than
goals that can realistically be attained in a short period of time. Typical
resolutions made as the new year dawns often reflect the unattainable
nature of many goals and the expectation for a quick fix such as “lose 60
pounds before summer swimsuit time” or “become stress-free” as a sin-
gle mother of two while working 50 hours per week! This cultural mi-
lieu makes it hard for students to aid clients to set goals that can be
achieved following brief intervention.
Another barrier to preparing students to create well-formed goal
statements is the widespread use of vague, general goals. Saying that “I
am going to get fit” or “improve my grades” are common expressions
for the vague goals that many people say they plan to pursue. Agency
records and social work textbooks often contain examples of goal state-
ments that lack a specific outcome. For example, a textbook table on
“Goals and General Tasks” lists eight goals and none states a specific
outcome (Hepworth et al., 2002, p. 331). All goals were stated by using
these words: “increase,” “improve,” “enhance,” or “relate more com-
fortably” and none stated how much change would need to occur to at-
tain the goal.
Another obstacle to achieving student skill in setting goals that meet
the MAPS criteria is the milieu that pervades many social service agen-
cies. A review of agency and hospital records often reveals goals for cli-
ents that are not measurable, attainable, worded in a positive direction,
and/or specific. Similar reviews of agency reports and committee min-
utes also show that program and organizational goals are sometimes not
well-formed. There are frequent examples of program goals that lack
specificity and have a negative focus, such as “decrease fighting for stu-
dents that complete the Peace Now program” or “reduce child neglect

among mothers in the job training program” or “reduce substance abuse
and mental health problems in the neighborhood.”
Students often need guidance to clearly recognize the difference be-
tween goals which are the desired outcomes, and action steps which are
the means of achieving the goals. Here, too, students have often been
exposed to case records in which professionals have conflated interven-
tions with goals. Hence the ubiquitous use of “attend parenting classes”
appears as a treatment goal instead of recognizing it as an intervention
that implies some unspoken goal that would be related to the improved
approach to parenting. Learning that treatment compliance is important
but not to be equated with achieving one’s goals is a key component to
distinguishing between interventions and outcomes.
GOAL-FOCUSED ACTION PLANS
Social work practitioners must be skilled in formulating plans to
reach goals as well as skilled in working with people to identify attain-
able goals (Hepworth et al., 2002). In their review of the literature on
“hope” as a psychotherapeutic foundation, Hubble, Duncan, and Miller
(1999) define hope as the way “people think about goals” (p. 180). Re-
search indicates that people are more likely to experience positive emo-
tions and maintain hopefulness when they are able to pursue their
identified goals (Barnum, 1998; Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm,
1997; Elliott, Witty, Herrick, & Hoffman, 1991). As discussed by
Snyder (1994a,b, 1998), helping people to maintain hope and pursue
their goals involves aiding them in developing their pathways and
agency thinking. Social workers aid people to strengthen pathways’
thinking when engaging them in identifying one or more paths that can
be pursued to achieve a goal. Likewise, practitioners can assist people to
develop their sense of agency by helping them to begin taking steps on
the chosen pathway as well as supporting them to continue along the
path until the goal is attained.
Rosen (1992) developed a framework for “systematic planned prac-
tice” to foster practitioner attention to the linkage between goals and in-
tervention strategies throughout the change process. Rosen’s framework
stresses the important link between the practitioner’s interventions and
the end state that is to be attained after the interventions are carried out.
His framework asks the practitioner to have a rationale for choosing
particular intervention strategies and to clearly link the intervention to
the outcome that is being sought. Rosen notes that the intervention plan

represents the practitioner’s hypothesis about how the outcome can be
attained. His practice framework also includes regular evaluation of
progress toward the stated outcomes and revision of the intervention
plan when progress toward the outcome is not occurring.
PREPARING WELL-FORMED GOALS
AND GOAL-FOCUSED ACTION PLANS
Teaching students to set goals that are measurable, attainable, worded
in a positive direction, and specific (MAPS) is vital for their effective
practice. Such instruction is important so that graduates are prepared to
meet agency expectations, such as one organization’s policy on the
Treatment Planning Process that states: “For each significant need iden-
tified for the client, the clinician must document . . . [the] Treatment
Goal–A description of what specific measurable target behavior(s) the
client will display when the focus of treatment (problem) is resolved.
This can be thought of as the reverse of the problem statement” (Com-
munity Hospitals of Indianapolis Behavioral Care Services, 2001, p. 2).
This policy shows how agencies expect practitioners to aid clients in
setting measurable, positively focused, and specific outcomes.
The instructional task is to prepare students to form goal statements
that are clearly focused on outcomes that meet the MAPS criteria. De-
spite the attention given by many authors (Compton & Galaway, 1999;
Egan, 1998; Gambrill, 1997; Hepworth et al., 2002; Miley et al., 1995;
Sheafor, Horejsi, & Horejsi, 2000; Tohn & Oshlag, 2000) to the impor-
tance of establishing clear goals for all aspects of social work practice,
these textbooks leave it to the reader to learn the process of transforming
the broad guidelines for goals into actual goal statements for their work
with clients, advisory boards, committees, and neighborhood groups.
Thus, considerable classroom time needs to focus on helping students
learn to operationalize the MAPS criteria.
To foster students’ learning to use the MAPS criteria in setting ulti-
mate and intermediate goals as well as learning to clearly distinguish
goals from action steps, the authors will describe several learning ex-
ercises. These assignments engage students in (1) using the MAPS cri-
teria to set goals and evaluate whether goal statements are well-
formed; (2) developing plans that specify action steps to attain goals;
and (3) evaluating progress toward goals and the effectiveness of
action plans. Each of the following assignments will be described:
(1) Where’s the Goal? (2) Establishing Learning Goals; (3) Goal-Set-

ting Role Play; (4) Case Study–Goal-Setting and Intervention Plan-
ning; and (5) Getting Organizational Talk into Action.
“Where’s the Goal?”
“Where’s the Goal?” was developed to help students differentiate
goals from action steps and recognize poorly formed goal statements.
A list of examples of “goal” statements that social workers have devel-
oped has been compiled. As can be seen from the items in Table 1, sev-
eral statements are examples of action steps, such as “attend an AA
meeting every day for 90 days” and others are examples of goals that
are not specific, negatively focused, hard to measure, and/or not at-
tainable. Students are asked to (1) identify the well-formed goal state-
ments, (2) identify the statements that address action steps and explain
what outcome/goal might be attained by completing the action step,
TABLE 1. “Where’s the Goal?” Sample of Statements
1. Attend an AA meeting every day for 90 daysa
2. Students in “Pathways to Success” program will increase school participationb
3. Decrease injuries to 10 year old childc
4. Increase the supply of affordable housing over the next decadeb
5. Attend 6 family therapy sessionsa
6. Prevent residential placementc
7. Decrease the number of teens who become homeless when leaving foster carec
8. Control aggressive tendenciesd
9. Establish a program for chronically depressed adolescentse
10. Earn a B in Math this grading periodf
11. Attend parenting classesa
12. Offer free breast cancer screeningse
13. Keep out of jaild
14. Improve self-esteemb
15. Reduce crime in the neighborhoodc
a
intervention, not a goal
b
positive focus, attainable, but not specific or measurable
cattainable, but negative focus and not specific or measurable
dnegative focus, not specific or measurable and may not be attainable
epositive focus, attainable, measurable, but not specific
f
only example of a statement that meets the MAPS criteria for a well-formed goal

and (3) identify goal statements that do not meet the MAPS criteria
and revise the statements to make them well-formed goal statements.
Developing Learning Goals
Starting with themselves, students in social work practice classes set
goals for their learning and growth using the MAPS criteria. Curtis
(2000) has discussed the necessity for beginning practitioners to con-
sider issues related to goal-setting and to understand the process by
which goals are set in order to create optimal learning. As students build
skill in setting goals for their own learning, they gain valuable experi-
ence for aiding clients to set goals.
Students’ initial attempts to state learning goals often fail to address
one or more of the MAPS criteria for a well-formed goal. Instructor
feedback guides students to revise their learning goals and achieve
clear, specific goal statements.
Revising a Student Learning Goal:
Original: In the next three months, I will feel comfortable leading
and facilitating a board committee meeting for my agency.
Revised: By December 16, 2004, I will have facilitated two board
committee meetings using the skills of attending, seeking, and giv-
ing information.
After establishing MAPS goals, students develop action steps that they
will take to pursue the desired learning outcomes. The initial phase of
the assignment concludes with a plan to measure progress toward each
learning goal. Students are encouraged to develop both a Goal Attain-
ment Scale (Compton & Galaway, 1999; Kiresuk & Sherman, 1968)
and a self-report Progress Scale, such as solution-focused practitioners
use to monitor client progress (Tohn & Oshlag, 2000).
Students often struggle to focus their goal statements on outcomes
rather than action steps. Some of this difficulty may stem from the pas-
sive approach that students are often expected to take in their learning.
Since the customary syllabus design stipulates “course objectives,”
most students are challenged to take ownership for personalizing their
learning experience by stating their own specific learning goals. In-
structor feedback is often needed to help students understand that “at-
tending all classes” or “completing assigned readings before class” are
examples of action steps, not learning goals. Examples of well-formed

goal statements that students have developed to target their learning on
specific outcomes are shown in Table 2 as well as examples of action
steps that students identified to help them achieve their desired learning
outcomes.
During the semester, each student prepares a midterm report on steps
taken and progress achieved on each goal. The student evaluates goal
attainment at the end of the course and analyzes the value of goal-set-
ting. Completing this assignment engages students in a parallel process
to the elements of sound social work practice of setting goals, develop-
ing action plans to achieve goals, and evaluating progress and goal at-
tainment.
Goal-Setting Role Play
The instructor conducts a role play with students who take the role of
members of an agency’s advisory group. During the simulated meeting,
the Advisory Board engages in a discussion of goals for a new program
to deliver mental health services in neighborhood centers. Although the
board members have a general idea of how they want to help residents
in these low-income neighborhoods get help for depression and sub-
stance abuse problems, their ideas are vague when they begin discuss-
TABLE 2. Examples of Goal Statements and Action Steps to Attain Learning
Goals
Goal:
I will increase my comfort level during
interviews form a 2 to a 7. I will know that I
am comfortable when my body is relaxed,
my breathing comes easy, and my chest
and stomach muscles are relaxed.
Action Steps:
1. I will observe 3 interviews done by
experienced practitioners.
2. I will complete 3 simulated interviews
with my field instructor.
3. I will breathe deeply and relax my
muscles for 5 minutes prior to an
interview.
Goal:
I will develop a program for parents that
prepares them to teach their preschool
children two nonviolent ways to express
anger and resolve conflict.
Action Steps:
1. I will read about violence prevention
and/or peace programs for children.
2. I will develop an outline for a six session
educational group for parents using the
information I’ve found about violence
prevention programs.
3. I will discuss the outline with my field
instructor and present it to the program
staff for their feedback and suggestions.

ing program goals. Through this role play, the instructor models for the
class ways to engage the members of the Advisory Board in developing
clear, specific program goals that are focused on positive outcomes and
can be attained. After completing the role play for the class, students are
divided into teams so they can take turns in the roles of practitioner, peer
supervisor, and board members. In each role play, the students who are
board members present ideas for program goals that are not well-
formed so that the student practitioner can assist the board members to
develop clear goals. After each role play, the peer supervisor gathers
feedback from the board members about their views of the student prac-
titioner’s effectiveness, asks the student practitioner to evaluate her or
his skills in assisting the board members to set a well-formed goal, and
completes an evaluation of the student practitioner’s goal-setting skills.
Goal-Setting Using a Case Study
Students form problem-based learning groups and receive a family
case to assess, set goals with, and plan interventions to help the family
achieve their desired goals. After assessing the case, students establish
three goals to guide their work with the family. Students often need in-
structor feedback to develop goal statements that meet the MAPS crite-
ria. To conclude this initial phase of the case study assignment, students
develop scales that could be used to monitor progress toward the fam-
ily’s goals. Students are encouraged to use Goal Attainment Scales
(Kiresuk & Sherman, 1968) and self-anchored progress scales that are
individualized to measure the family’s specific goals. Table 3 provides
an example of a Goal Attainment Scale and Table 4 shows how a
self-anchored scale could be used to measure progress. Students are
also expected to identify a rapid assessment instrument (RAI), such as
those found in Clement (1999) or Fischer and Corcoran (2000), that
could be used to measure change. After successfully completing the as-
sessment and establishing well-formed goals for the case study, student
work groups proceed to develop a plan of intervention. Intervention
plans must include several specific action steps for each of the family’s
three goals so that substantial progress should occur when these actions
are completed.
Getting Organizational Talk into Action
To prepare for Macro practice, it is important for students to de-
velop skills in assisting neighborhood groups, staff teams, and advi-

sory and agency boards to develop well-formed goals. A compre-
hensive Macro assignment has been developed to engage students in
the process of (1) identifying the target population and their needs, (2) set-
ting program goals, (3) preparing action plans that will guide the ser-
vice delivery process, and (4) establishing performance measures that
will evaluate the results.
TABLE 3. Examples of Goal Statement and Goal Attainment Scale
Goal: When expressing herself at times of conflict with her child, mother will use “I”
statements, speak firmly using same volume as she uses in daily conversations,
keep hands relaxed, and maintain usual rate of breathing.
Attainment Levels Goal
Much less than expected No ‘I’ statements, yelling, name-calling, hands clenched,
20+ breaths per minute
Somewhat less than expected No ‘I’ statements, speaks loudly as if child can’t hear, one
hand clenched, 13-19 breaths/min
Expected level 1-2 ‘I’ statements per conflict, conversational tone, both
hands relaxed, 11-12 breaths/min
Somewhat more than expected 3-4 ‘I’ statements per conflict, speaks softer than usual,
hands and face relaxed, 9-10 breaths/min
Much more than expected 3-4 ‘I’ statements per conflict spoken quietly and
carefully, some other quiet conversation, hands, face,
and neck relaxed, 7-8 breaths/min
TABLE 4. Example of Self-Anchored Progress Scale
Goal: Express warmth in daily interactions with partner through hugs, smiling, and facial
expressions that are natural and relaxed.
Self-Anchored Progress Scale to Evaluate Use of Warmth:
Warmth Scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Stonefaced
Distant
Inattentive
Inconsistent
facial expression
Stiff at first
Hugs-Greets warmly
Relaxed gestures
Attentive
Partner Ratings: First Week–4
Second Week–4
Third Week–5
Fourth Week–7

Identify the Target Population and Their Need. Students work in
teams to identify their target population and gather indicators of need,
such as the number of families in a neighborhood that are living with
friends and relatives because affordable housing is not available or the
number of families receiving TANF that need child care to permit the
mothers to work. Baseline data is collected that documents the current
need, the history and epidemiology of the problem, and the commu-
nity’s past response to the need of the target population.
Set Program Goals. The student team establishes program goals that
will permit them to (1) Measure the results of the program, (2) pursue
program outcomes that are Attainable both in scope and cost, (3) focus
Positively on what people will be doing and where people will be after
the program is implemented, and (4) target Specific outcomes. In addi-
tion, the team must establish program goals that are consistent with
community values. For example, a goal for the board of a neighborhood
Community Development Corporation is: Establish 1,200 supported
housing units over the next decade and make them affordable for those
with a family income that is below 30 percent of the median family in-
come for the community.
Prepare Action Plans. The student team develops an action plan that
identifies specific services that will be offered to achieve the program
goals. The service delivery plan describes specific steps and clearly ex-
plains who will do what, when, where, and how. For example, one part
of the action plan to achieve the goal of 1,200 supported housing units is
establishing an apartment complex with 200 individual units for those
who are chronically homeless due to serious and persistent mental ill-
ness. All residents would receive support services from an on-site case
management team and have continuous access to one team member.
The action plan also explains how the new services fit together with ex-
isting services in the organization and the community. The team devel-
ops a budget that details the cost of implementing the action plan, and
they establish a timeline for implementing each component of the action
plan. The plan also discusses the steps that will be taken to access the
necessary power and resources to shift the past trend, meet the current
need, and achieve the program goals.
Establish Performance Measures. Student teams select or develop
instruments that will be used to measure the results of the implementa-
tion of the program and service systems in attaining the program goals.
A plan for collecting data will permit them to answer the often asked
question, “Is anything better?” Evidence must be collected to determine
whether the action plan is working and progress toward the program

goals is occurring. For example, if the action plan to address a goal of
“zero pregnancies among single teenagers for the next decade” focuses
on establishing an “Abstinence Only” program for all seventh graders
enrolled in the community’s schools, then the chosen performance mea-
sure would need to assess patterns of pregnancy and birth among teen-
agers in this community.
CONCLUSION
These assignments actively engage students in learning to establish
well-formed goals, develop an action plan that is linked to the desired
outcomes, and evaluate progress toward goals. Engaging students in an
active learning process has helped many students discover the value of
well-formed goals in ways that are not possible when learning is de-
pendent on lecture and discussion, and mastery is shown through the
student’s test performance. One student’s final paper concluded,
I learned that it is difficult to change or to notice change if we are not
sure what we want to change. For example, someone might say, “I
want to be a better therapist.” They have used this as their goal, but
what does this mean? What do they want to be better at: Listening?
Responding? Warmth? Caring? Empathy? If someone really wants
to change an aspect of their life they have to identify . . . a specific
goal. . . . I attribute my change to the process of identifying an area
that I wanted to change, stating how I wanted to change it and what
steps I would take to do it, and then receiving feedback. I was very
mindful of this area because I knew that I wanted to change it. It
made me accountable for it.
To help other students achieve understanding and commitment to goal-
setting, educators are encouraged to use active learning projects that pre-
pare students to become social workers who establish goals that meet the
MAPS criteria and select action steps that are linked to goal attainment.
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