Advice and guidelines on academic writing

1. Advice and guidelines on
academic writing
Writing advice University of Toronto

2. General
 Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing
An essay should have:
-An argument
-A question or a few to be answered
-Something to prove
-A single thesis or a short set of closely related points

3. The Transition from High School to University Writing
University expectations imply a departure from High School rules
Structure:
There is not a predetermined number of points to be proved and you can have as
many paragraphs as needed, the five paragraph structure is not necessarily
applied.
Paragraphs:
Length is determined by needs, there´s no page limit.
Compulsory conclusions for each paragraph become redundant.
Thesis Statement:
Not every essay needs a thesis statement, its length can vary and it can occur in
places other than the end of the first paragraph.
Argument
Argumentative essays are not based on personal experience or opinion but on
evidence from different sources.
Counter arguments are addressed.

4. Understanding Essay Topics
Essay writing requires showing a reasoning process:
You should:
Note key terms: define the kind of reasoning you should be using analyze,
compare, evaluate, argue, etc.
Ask yourself questions about the specific topic in terms of the concepts
or methods that seem applicable. Looking for controversies in the
material will also help you find things worth discussing.
Formulate a tentative thesis statement at a fairly early stage, that is, a
statement of your own position in the controversy that most interests
you, or your preliminary answer to an important question you stablished.

5. Writer’s Block
trouble understanding the assignment?
-Ask the instructor questions about anything that you find new or confusing.
- Look for keywords that will help you figure out what you are expected to do.
enough research?
you may need to do more research or review the research you have already done:
-Go to the library and speak with a librarian about finding materials on your topic
and specific to the discipline.
Too much research?
If you’ve done a lot of reading on a particular subject, beginning to write can be
overwhelming.
-Narrow the scope of the paper.
Have a topic?
-Be sure that you have a specific topic.
-Use course materials to help you generate or refine your topic.
Never written a paper in this genre before?
-Seek guidance from your professor.
-Look for handbooks and guides on how to write in specific disciplines.
worried about sounding smart enough?
-Don’t try to use unfamiliar words to sound smart, and don’t convince yourself
that your readers want you to do so. Focus on getting your ideas down simply and
clearly.
-Leave plenty of time for revising and editing

6. Planning and Organizing
Organizing an Essay
Basic guidelines
-The best time to think about how to organize your paper is during the pre-writing stage, it allows
you to pay more attention to sentence-level issues when you sit down to write your paper.
-When you begin planning, ask the following questions: What type of essay am I going to be writing?
Does it belong to a specific genre? Knowing the patterns of reasoning associated with a genre can
help you to structure your essay.
Avoiding a Common Danger
-The structure of an essay should not be determined by the structure of its source material. For
example, an essay on an historical period should not necessarily follow the chronology of events
from that period.
Putting a plan together
-The earlier you begin planning, the better. It is usually a mistake to do all of your research and
note-taking before beginning to draw up an outline. Of course, you will have to do some reading and
weighing of evidence before you start to plan. But as a potential argument begins to take shape in
your mind, you may start to formalize your thoughts in the form of a tentative plan.

7. Thesis Statements
When you are asked to write an essay that creates an argument, your reader will
probably expect a clear statement of your position. Typically, this summary
statement comes in the first paragraph of the essay, though there is no rigid
rule about position.
Some Myths about Thesis Statements
Every paper requires one
It´s not the case for assignments that ask you to write personal responses or to
explore a subject.
A thesis statement must come at the end of the first paragraph
Some theses can be stated in the opening sentences of an essay; others need a
paragraph or two of introduction; others can’t be fully formulated until the end.
A thesis statement must be one sentence in length, no matter how many clauses
it contains
A complex argument may require a whole paragraph to make its initial statement.
You can’t start writing an essay until you have a perfect thesis statement
changing and refining a thesis is a main task of thinking your way through your
ideas as you write a paper.
A thesis statement must give three points of support
Points don’t need to come in any specific number.

8. Introductions and Conclusions:
General advice about introductions
-Be aware of the dangers of spending too much time into the introduction, save time for
planning and writing.
-It can be fine to leave the writing of the introduction for a later stage in the essay-
writing process.
-The introductions for most papers can be effectively written in one paragraph occupying
half to three-quarters of the first page.
-Get to the point as soon as possible.
-If your essay has a thesis, your thesis statement will typically appear at the end of your
introduction, even though that is not a hard-and-fast rule.
general advice about conclusions
-A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your thesis.
Remind the reader of how the evidence you’ve presented has contributed to your thesis.
-Try to convey some closing thoughts about the larger implications of your argument.
-Broaden your focus a bit at the end of the essay. A good last sentence leaves your
reader with something to think about.
- The length of the conclusion should reflect the length of the essay. For most essays,
one well developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion.

9. Paragraphs
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a sentence or a group of sentences that supports one central, unified idea.
Paragraphs add one idea at a time to your broader argument.
How to unify ideas in a paragraph
The most effective way to achieve paragraph unity is to express the central idea of the
paragraph in a topic sentence. Topic sentences are equivalent to smaller thesis
statements. Like a thesis statement, they have a specific main point.
Developing ideas in a paragraph
-Illustration in a paragraph supports a general statement by means of examples, details,
or relevant quotations (with your comments).
-The definition paragraph defines a term, often by drawing distinctions between the
term and other related ones.
-The analysis or classification paragraph develops a topic by distinguishing its component
parts and discussing each of these parts separately.
-A comparison or a contrast paragraph focusses on a key similarity or difference
between, for instance, two sources, positions, or ideas.
-A qualification paragraph acknowledges that what you previously asserted is not
absolutely true or always applicable.
-The process paragraph involves a step by step description. Process which often follows a
chronological sequence.

10. Topic Sentences
A topic sentence states the main point of a paragraph. Your essay’s topic sentences will
provide a sketch of the essay’s argument. But do not forget that your topic sentence
should do more than just establish a connection between your paragraph and your thesis.
Topic sentences usually appear at the very beginning of paragraphs. But not every
paragraph needs one, Sometimes a paragraph helps to develop the same point as in the
previous paragraph.

11. Critical Reading and Critical Writing
Critical writing depends on critical reading. Most of the papers you write will involve
reflection on written texts. You will need to do careful critical reading of sources to use
them to make your own argument. To read critically is to make judgements about how a
text is argued; don’t read looking only or primarily for information, always read looking for
ways of thinking about the subject matter.

12. Getting the most of reading
Students often think they need to read fast so they can get through all the material
they’re asked to deal with. But there’s no point reading and not understanding or
remembering what you’ve seen. A more important skill is to read with comprehension and
memory.
Tips for effective reading:
Textbooks
They sometimes require intensive reading, though usually in some parts more than others.
Note the signals from your professor on just what sections are relevant to the course. Be
aware of the structure of the text as you read: the chapter titles, headings and
subheadings will name the main concepts to be covered.
Primary Sources
Read through each literary work or historical document, paying attention to your own
responses and questions. “Stickies” will let you express these on the spot without spoiling
the pages.
Research Readings
In going through sources for a research essay, you are looking for facts to support or
modify your original view of the topic, and for others’ opinions to support and to challenge
your own.

13. Taking Notes from Research Reading
Know what kind of ideas you need to record
Focus your approach to the topic before you start detailed research. Then you will read
with a purpose in mind, and you will be able to sort out relevant ideas.
Don’t write down too much
Your essay must be an expression of your own thinking, not a compilation of borrowed
ideas. Invest your research time in understanding your sources and integrating them into
your own thinking. Your notes will record only ideas that are relevant to your focus on the
topic; and they will mostly summarize rather than quote.
Label your notes intelligently
Take notes in a way that allows for later use.

14. Research Using the Internet
There are a great many solid academic resources available on the Net, including hundreds of
on-line journals and sites set up by universities and scholarly or scientific organizations. Yet
“anything goes” on the internet, anyone can put anything they want on a Web site and there
will be no review or filtering process.
A few basic guidelines to remember:
Don’t rely exclusively on Net resources
Cross-checking information from the Net against information from the Library is a good
way to make sure that the Net material is reliable and authoritative.
Narrow your research topic before logging on
The Internet allows access to so much information that you can easily be overwhelmed.
Know your subject directories and search engines
There are several high quality peer-reviewed subject directories containing links selected
by subject experts

15. Previewing
As a student, your primary purposes in reading are shaped by the course you’re taking
and/or the papers you’re writing. Spend a few minutes previewing a text before starting to
read, in order to orient yourself toward what is important for you in this reading:
-Read the title
-Think about the subject matter
-Ask Who wrote this text?
-Where was this text originally published?
-When was this text originally published?
-Read the chapter titles or the headings that break up the chapter or article.
-Ask yourself Why has your professor assigned this text?

16. Skimming and Scanning
By first skimming a text, you can get a sense of its overall logical progression. Skimming can
also help you make decisions about where to place your greatest focus when you have
limited time for your reading.
Here is one technique for skimming a text:
-use some of the previewing techniques
-read carefully the introductory paragraph and try to predict the direction of the coming
explanations or arguments.
-Read carefully the first one or two sentences of each paragraph, as well as the concluding
sentence or sentences.
-try to avoid looking up unfamiliar words or terminology. Your goal is to pick up the larger
concepts.
-Read carefully the concluding paragraph or paragraphs. What does the author’s overall
purpose seem to be?
- Read through the text carefully, noting the complexities you missed in your skimming
Scanning is basically skimming with a more tightly focused purpose: skimming to locate a
particular fact or figure, or to see whether this text mentions a subject you’re
researching.

17. Summarizing
A summary has two aims:
-Identifying the general concepts that run through a text and;
-expressing these concepts using precise, specific language.
Methods for summarizing:
-Include the title and identify the author in your first sentence
-The first sentence or two of your summary should contain the author’s thesis, or central
concept, stated in your own words.
- Divide the article into sections and write a sentence or two to cover the key ideas in each
section.
-Omit ideas that are not really central to the text.
-Omit minor details and specific examples.
-Avoid writing opinions or personal responses.
-Be careful not to plagiarize the author’s words. If you do use even a few of the author’s
words, they must appear in quotation marks.

18. Quotations
The focus of your essay should be on your understanding of the topic. If you include too much
quotation in your essay, you will crowd out your own ideas. Consider quoting a passage from one
of your sources if any of the following conditions holds:
-The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or memorable.
-You wish to confirm the credibility of your argument by enlisting the support of an authority
on your topic.
-The passage is worthy of further analysis.
-You wish to argue with someone else’s position in considerable detail.
Also consider:
consider
paraphrasing the passage if you wish to convey the points in the passage at roughly the same
level of detail as in the original.
summarizing the relevant passage if you wish to sketch only the most essential points in the
passage.
verbs commonly used to introduce quotations:
argues - writes - points out - concludes - comments - notes -
maintains - suggests - insists - observes - counters - asserts -
states - claims - demonstrates - says - explains - reveals

19. Revising And Editing
Revising gives you the chance to preview your work on behalf of the eventual reader. It also
involves checking of details in the final editing stage . Good revision and editing can
transform a mediocre first draft into an excellent final paper.
Revision may mean changing the shape and reasoning in your paper. It often means adding or
deleting sentences and paragraphs, shifting them around, and reshaping them as you go.
Before dealing with details of style and language (editing), be sure you have presented ideas
that are clear and strong.
-Check whether you have fulfilled the intention of the assignment. Look again at the
instruction sheet, and revise your work. (consider: types of thinking – genre – concepts and
methods of reasoning – evidence for your argument)
-Look at overall organization (see that introduction, sections, connections and your conclusion
are in the right place).
-Polish and edit your style by moving to smaller matters such as word choice, sentence
structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

20. bibliography
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