Chapter 3

40 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY

CHAPTER 3

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

I least acknowledged by law or by
custom. And whose regular and
INTRODUCTION continuous operation cannot be
understood without taking those rules
This book began with a discussion into account. Institutions impose
about the interaction of the individual constraints on individuals. They also
and society. We saw that each of us as provide him/her with opportunities.
individuals, occupies a place or An institution can also be viewed as
location in society. Each one of us has
an end in itself. Indeed people have
a status and a role or roles, but these
viewed the family, religion, state or even
are not simply what we as individuals
education as an end in itself.
choose. They are not like roles a film
actor may or may not opt to do. There
Activity 1
are social institutions that constrain and
control, punish and reward. They could Think of examples of how people
be ‘macro’ social institutions like the sacrifice for the family, for religion,
state or ‘micro’ ones like the family. for the state.
Here in this chapter we are introduced
to social institutions, and also to how We have already seen that there
sociology/social anthropology studies are conflicting and different
them. This chapter puts forth a very understandings of concepts within
brief idea of some of the central areas sociology. We have also been introduced
where important social institutions are to the functionalist and conflict
located namely: (i) family, marriage and perspective, and seen how differently
kinship; (ii) politics; (iii) economics; they saw the same thing, for instance
(iv) religion; and (v) education. stratification or social control. Not
In the broadest sense, an surprisingly, therefore, there are
institution is something that works different forms of understanding of
according to rules established or at social institutions as well.

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 41

A functionalist view understands II
social institutions as a complex set of
social norms, beliefs, values and role FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND KINSHIP
relationship that arise in response to Perhaps no other social entity appears
the needs of society. Social institutions more ‘natural’ than the family. Often we
exist to satisfy social needs. Accordingly are prone to assume that all families are
we find informal and formal social like the ones we live in. No other social
institutions in societies. Institutions institution appears more universal and
such as family and religion are unchanging. Sociology and social
examples of informal social institutions anthropology have over many decades
while law and (formal) education are conducted field research across
formal social institutions. cultures to show how the institutions
of family, marriage and kinship are
A conflict view holds that all important in all societies and yet their
individuals are not placed equally in character is different in different
society. All social institutions whether societies. They have also shown how the
familial, religious, political, economic, family (the private sphere) is linked to
legal or educational will operate in the the economic, political, cultural,
interest of the dominant sections of educational (the public) spheres. This
society be it class, caste, tribe or gender. may remind you of why there is a need
The dominant social section not only to share and borrow from different
dominates political and economic disciplines, which we have discussed in
Chapter 1.
institutions but also ensures that the
According to the functionalists the
ruling class ideas become the ruling
family performs important tasks, which
ideas of a society. This is very different
contribute to society’s basic needs and
from the idea that there are general helps perpetuate social order. The
needs of a society. functionalist perspective argues that
As you go about reading this modern industrial societies function
chapter, see whether you can think best if women look after the family and
of examples to show how social men earn the family livelihood. In India
studies however suggest that families
institutions constrain and also offer
need not become nuclear in an
opportunities to individuals. Notice
industrial pattern of economy (Singh
whether they impact different sections
1993: 83). This is but one example to
of society unequally. For instance, we show how trends based on experiences
could ask, “How does the family of one society cannot necessarily be
constrain as well provide opportunities generalised.
to men and women?” Or “How do The nuclear family is seen as the
political or legal institutions affect the unit best equipped to handle the
privileged and dispossessed?” demands of industrial society by the


functionalists. In such a family one families have always existed in India
adult can work outside the home while particularly among the deprived castes
the second adult cares for the home and and classes.
children. In practical terms, this The sociologist A.M. Shah remarks
specialisation of roles within the that in post-independent India the
nuclear family involves the husband joint family has steadily increased.
adopting the ‘instrumental’ role as The contributing factor is the
breadwinner, and the wife assuming increasing life expectancy in India
the ‘affective’, emotional role in domestic according to him. It has increased
settings (Giddens 2001). This vision is from 32.5 - 55.4 years for men and
questionable not just because it is from 31.7 - 55.7 years for women
gender unjust but because empirical during the period 1941 - 50 to
1981 - 85. Consequently, the
studies across cultures and history
proportion of aged people (60 years
show that it is untrue. Indeed, as you and above) in the total population
will see in the discussion on work and has increased. “We have to ask”
economy how in contemporary writes Shah — “in what kind of
industries like the garment export, household do these elderly people
women form a large part of the labour live? I submit, most of them live in
force. Such a separation also suggests joint household” (Shah; 1998).
that men are necessarily the heads of
This again is a broad generalisation.
households. This is not necessarily true
But in the spirit of the sociological
as the box which is given below shows.
perspective, it cautions us against
blindly believing a common sense
Variation in Family Forms
impression that the joint family is fast
A central debate in India has been eroding. And alerts us to the need for
about the shift from nuclear family to careful comparative and empirical
joint families. We have already seen how studies.
sociology questions common sense Studies have shown how diverse
impressions. The fact is that nuclear family forms are found in different

Female headed households

When men migrate to urban areas, women have to plough and manage the
agricultural fields. Many a time they become the sole providers of their families.
Such households are known as female headed households. Widowhood too
might create such familial arrangement. Or it may happen when men get re-
married and stop sending remittance to their wives, children and other
dependents. In such a situation, women have to ensure the maintenance of the
family. Among the Kolams, a tribal community in south-eastern Maharashtra
and northern Andhra Pradesh, a female headed household is an accepted norm.


societies. With regard to the rule of Families are Linked to other Social
residence, some societies are matrilocal Spheres and Families Change
in their marriage and family customs
Often in our everyday life we look at
while others are patrilocal. In the first
case, the newly married couple stays the family as distinct and separate from
with the woman’s parents, whereas in other spheres such as the economic or
the second case the couple lives with political. However, as you will see for
the man’s parents. A patriarchal family yourself the family, the household, its
structure exists where the men structure and norms are closely linked
exercise authority and dominance, and to the rest of society. An interesting
matriarchy where the women play a example is that of the unintended
major role in decision-making in the consequences of the German uni-
family. While matrilineal societies exist, fication. During the post-unification
the same cannot be claimed about period in the 1990s Germany
matriarchal societies. witnessed a rapid decline in marriage

Notice how families and residences are different

Work and Home


because the new German state the female child will leave on marriage
withdrew all the protection and welfare results in families investing more in a
schemes which were provided to the male child. Despite the biological fact
families prior to the unification. With that a female baby has better chances
growing sense of economic insecurity of survival than a male baby the rate of
people responded by refusing to marry. infant mortality among female children
This can also be understood as a is higher in comparison to male
case of unintended consequence children in lower age group in India.
(Chapter 1).
Family and kinship are thus The Institution of Marriage
subject to change and transformation Historically marriage has been found
due to macro economic processes but to exist in a wide variety of forms in
the direction of change need not always
be similar for all countries and regions. Activity 2
Moreover, change does not mean the
A Telegu expression states:
complete erosion of previous norms and
‘Bring-ing up a daughter is like
structure. Change and continuity
watering a plant in another’s
co-exist.
courtyard’. Find out other such
How gendered is the family? sayings that are contrary. Discuss
how popular sayings reflect the
The belief is that the male child will social arrangement of a society,
support the parents in the old age and
Sex Ratio in India between 1901-2001
Year Sex Ratio Year Sex Ratio
1901 972 1951 946
1911 964 1961 941
1921 955 1971 930
1931 950 1981 934
1941 945 1991 926
2001 (927)*
* In 2001 the sex ratio of girls in 0-6 group was enumerated as 927

The incidence of female foeticide has led to a sudden decline in the sex ratio.
The child sex ratio has declined from 934 per thousand males in 1991 to 927 in
2001. The percentage of decline in the child sex ratio is more alarming. The
situation of prosperous states like Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and western
Utter Pradesh is all the more grave. In Punjab the child sex ratio has declined
to 793 girls per 1,000 boys. In some of the districts of Punjab and Haryana it
has fallen below 700.


different societies. It has also been right for upper caste Hindu widows
found to perform differing functions. was denied and that the campaign for
Indeed, the manner in which marriage widow remarriage was a major issue
partners are arranged reveal an in the 19th century reform movements.
astonishing variety of modes and What you are probably less aware is
customs. that today in modern India nearly 10
per cent of all women and 55 per cent
Activiy 3 of women over fifty years are widows
(Chen 2000:353).
Find out about the different ways Polygamy denotes marriage to
that different societies go about more than one mate at one time and
finding marriage partners. takes the form of either: Polygyny (one
husband with two or more wives) or
Polyandry (one wife with two or more
Forms of Marriage
husbands). Usually where economic
Marriage has a large variety of forms. conditions are harsh, polyandry may
These forms can be identified on the be one response of society, since in
basis of the number of partners and such situations a single male cannot
rules governing who can marry whom. adequately support a wife and
In terms of the number of partners that children. Also, extreme poverty
can legitimately enter into matrimony, conditions pressurise a group to limit
we have two forms of marriage, its population.
namely, monogamy and polygamy.
Monogamy restricts the individual to The Matter of Arranging Marriages:
one spouse at a time. Under this Rules and Prescriptions
system, at any given time a man can
In some societies, the decisions
have only one wife and a woman can
regarding mate selection are made
have only one husband. Even where
by parents/relatives; in some other
polygamy is permitted, in actual
societies individuals are relatively free
practice, monogamy is more widely
to choose their own mates.
prevalent.
In many societies, individuals are
Rules of Endogamy and Exogamy
permitted to marry again, often on the
death of the first spouse or after In some societies these restrictions
divorce. But they cannot have more are subtle, while in some others,
than one spouse at one and the same individuals who can or cannot be
time. Such a monogamous marriage married, are more explicitly and
is termed serial monogamy. Re- specifically defined. Forms of marriage
marriages on the death of a wife have based on rules governing eligibility/
been a norm for men for the most part. ineligibility of mates is classified as
But as all of you are aware that the endogamy and exogamy.


Endogamy requires an individual Rock-a-bye-baby, combs in your
to marry within a culturally defined pretty hair,
group of which he or she is already a The bridegroom will come soon and
take you away
member, as for example, caste.
The drums beat loudly, the shehnai
Exogamy, the reverse of endogamy, is playing softly
requires the individual to marry outside A stranger’s son has come to fetch me
of his/her own group. Endogamy and Come my playmates, come with our
exogamy are in reference to certain toys
kinship units, such as, clan, caste and Let us play, for I shall never play
racial, ethnic or religious groupings. In again
When I go off to the strangers’ house.
India, village exogamy is practised in
certain parts of north India. Village (Dube 2001: 94)
exogamy ensured that daughters were
married into families from villages far Activity 4
away from home. This arrangement
ensured smooth transition and Collect different wedding songs and
adjustment of the bride into the affinal discuss how they reflect the social
home without interference of her dynamics of marriages and of
kinsmen. The geographical distance gender relations.
plus the unequal relationship in the
patrilineal system ensured that married
Activity 5
daughters did not get to see their
parents too often. Thus parting from Have you ever seen matrimonial
natal home was a sad occasion and is advertisements? Divide your class
the theme of folk songs, which depict into groups and look at different
the pain of departure. newspapers, magazines and the
internet. Discuss your findings. Do
Father, we are like flocks of bird you think endogamy is still the
We shall fly away; Our flight will be prevalent norm? How does it help
long, you to understand choice in
We know not to which, marriage? More importantly, what
Region we will go. kind of changes in society does it
Father, my palanquin cannot
reflect?
Pass through your palace,
(because the door is too small)
Daughter, I shall remove a brick Defining Some Basic Concepts,
(to enlarge the passage for your Particularly those of Family,
palanquin), Kinship and Marriage
You must go to your home. A family is a group of persons
(Chanana 1993: WS 26) directly linked by kin connections,


the adult members of which assume
III
responsibility for caring for children.
Kinship ties are connections between WORK AND ECONOMIC LIFE
individuals, established either through
marriage or through the lines of descent What is Work?
that connect blood relatives (mothers,
fathers, siblings, offspring, etc.) As children and young students we
Marriage can be defined as a socially imagine what kind of ‘work’ we will do
acknowledged and approved sexual when we grow up. ‘Work’ here quite
union between two adult individuals. clearly refers to paid employment. This
When two people marry, they become is the most widely understood sense of
kin to one another. The marriage bond ‘work’ in modern times.
also, however, connects together a wider This in fact is an oversimplified view.
range of people. Parents, brothers, Many types of work do not conform to
sisters and other blood relatives become the idea of paid employment. Much of
relatives of the partner through the work done in the informal economy,
marriage. The family of birth is called for example, is not recorded in any
family of orientation and the family in direct way in the official employment
which a person is married is called the statistics. The term informal economy
family of procreation. The kin who are refers to transactions outside the
related through “blood” are called sphere of regular employment,
consanguinal kin while the kin who are sometimes involving the exchange of
related through marriage are called cash for services provided, but also
affines. As we move on to the next often involving the direct exchange of
section on work and economic goods or services.
institutions, you will notice how the We can define work, whether paid
family and economic life are closely or unpaid, as the carrying out of tasks
interconnected. requiring the expenditure of mental and

There was no occupation, which Tiny’s Granny had not tried at some stage of
her life. From the time she was old enough to hold her own cup she had started
working at odd jobs in people’s houses in return for her two meals a day and
cast-off clothes. Exactly what the words ‘odd jobs’ mean, only those know who
have been kept at them at an age when they ought to have been laughing and
playing with other children. Anything from the uninteresting duty of shaking
the baby’s rattle to massaging the master’s head comes under the category of
‘odd jobs’ (Chugtai 2004:125).
Find out more about the various kinds of ‘work’ done from your own
observation or literature or even films. Discuss.


Kind of Works

physical effort, which has as its objective
the production of goods and services
Activity 6
that cater to human needs.
Find out the proportion of Indians
Modern Forms of Work and Division who are in rural based occupations.
of Labour Make a list of these occupations.
In pre-modern forms of society most
people worked in the field or cared for
the livestock. In the industrially agriculture, and farming itself has
developed society only a tiny pro- become industrialised — it is carried on
portion of the population works in largely by means of machines rather


than by human hand. In a country like
India, the larger share of the population Activity 8
continues to be rural and agricultural
Have you seen a master weaver at
or involved in other rural based
work? Find out how long one piece
occupations.
of shawl may take to make?
There are other trends in India too,
for instance an expansion of the service
sector. People seeking jobs in factories
One of the most distinctive were trained to perform a specialised
characteristics of the economic system task and receive a wage for this work.
of modern societies is the existence of a Managers supervised the work, for
highly complex division of labour. Work their task was to enhance worker
has been divided into an enormous productivity and discipline.
number of different occupations in One of the main features of modern
which people specialise. In traditional societies is an enormous expansion of
societies, non-agricultural work economic interdependence. We are all
entailed the mastery of a craft. Craft dependent on an immense number of
skills were learned through a lengthy other workers-stretching right across
period of apprenticeship, and the the world- for the products and services
worker normally carried out all aspects that sustain our lives. With few
of the production process from exceptions, the vast majority of people
beginning to end. in modern societies do not produce the
food they eat, the houses they live in or
Activity 7 the material goods they consume.
Find out whether there has been a
shift to the service sector in India Activity 9
in recent times. Which are these
Make a list of the food that you eat,
sectors?
the materials that were used to make
Modern society also witnesses a the houses you live in, the clothes
shift in the location of work. Before you wear. Find out how and who
industrialisation, most work took place made them.
at home and was completed collectively
by all the members of the household.
Advances in industrial technology, Transformation of Work
such as machinery operating on Industrial processes were broken down
electricity and coal, contributed to the into simple operations that could be
separation of work and home. Factories precisely timed, organised and
owned by capitalist entrepreneurs monitored. Mass production demands
became the focal point of industrial mass markets. One of the most
development. significant innovations was the


Discuss the two forms of production in the two sets of visuals
Cloth production in a factory


Threshing of paddy in a village


construction of a moving assembly line. vision here is that of the creation of
Modern industrial production needed an international opinion forum
expensive equipment and continuous (Roy Choudhury 2005 :2254).
monitoring of employees through
monitoring or surveillance systems. Read the above given report carefully.
Over the last decades there has been Notice how the new organisation of
a shift to what is often called ‘flexible production and a body of customers
production’ and ‘decentralisation of outside the country have altered the
work’. It is argued that in this period economics and the politics of
of globalisation, it is the growing production.
competition between firms and
countries that makes it essential for IV
firms to organise production suiting the
POLITICS
changing market conditions. To
illustrate how this new system operates Political institutions are concerned with
and what the implications may be for the distribution of power in society. Two
the workers, read the quote from a concepts, which are critical to the
understanding of political institutions,
study of the garment industry in
are power and authority. Power is the
Bangalore. ability of individuals or groups to carry
The industry is essentially part of a out their will even when opposed by
long supply chain, and the freedom
others. It implies that those who hold
power do so at the cost of others. There
of manufacturers is to that extent
is a fixed amount of power in a society
extremely limited. There are, in fact and if some wield power others do not.
more than a hundred operations In other words, an individual or group
between the designer and the final does not hold power in isolation, they
consumer. In this chain, only hold it in relation to others.
15 are in the hands of the This notion of power is fairly
manufacturer. Any serious inclusive and extends from family elders
agitation for a rise in wages would assigning domestic duties to their
lead manufacturers to shift their children to principals enforcing
operations to other localities, discipline in school; from the General
beyond the reach of unionists... Manager of a factory distributing work
among the executives to political leaders
whether it is the payment of the
regulating programmes of their parties.
existing minimum wage, or its
The principal has power to maintain
substantial revision upwards, what discipline in school. The president of a
is important is to enlist the support political party possesses power to expel
of the retailer in order to create the a member from the party. In each case,
necessary pressure upon the an individual or group has power to the
government and local agencies for extent to which others abide by their
a higher wage structure and its will. In this sense, political activities or
effective implementation. Thus the politics is concerned with ‘power’.


But how is this ‘power’ applied to capacity to use military force to
achieve its aim? Why do people comply implement its policies. The functionalist
with others’ commands? Answers to perspective sees the state as
these questions could be found with representing the interests of all sections
reference to a related concept of of society. The conflict perspective sees
‘authority’. Power is exercised through the state as representing the dominant
authority. Authority is that form of sections of society.
power, which is accepted as legitimate, Modern states are very different
that is, as right and just. It is from traditional states. These states are
institutionalised because it is based on defined by sovereignty, citizenship
legitimacy. People in general accept the and, most often, ideas of nationalism.
power of those in authority as they Sovereignty refers to the undisputed
consider their control to be fair and political rule of a state over a given
justified. Often ideologies exist that help territorial area.
this process of legitimation. The sovereign state was not at first
one in which citizenship carried with it
Stateless Societies rights of political participation. These
were achieved largely through
Empirical studies of stateless societies by
struggles, which limited the power of
social anthropologists over sixty years
monarchs, or actively overthrew them.
ago demonstrated how order is
The French Revolution and our own
maintained without a modern
Indian independence struggle are two
governmental apparatus. There was
instances of such movements.
instead the balanced opposition
Citizenship rights include civil,
between parts; cross-cutting alliances,
political and social rights. Civil rights
based on kinship, marriage and
involve the freedom of individuals to
residence; rites and ceremonies involving
live where they choose; freedom of
the participation of friends and foes.
speech and religion; the right to own
As we all know, the modern state
property; and the right to equal justice
has a fixed structure and formal
before the law. Political rights include
procedures. Yet are not some of the
the right to participate in elections and
informal mechanisms mentioned above
to stand for public office. In most
as features of stateless societies present
countries governments were reluctant
also in state societies?
to admit the principle of universal
The Concept of the State franchise. In the early years not only
women, but a large section of the male
A state exists where there is a political population was excluded as holding a
apparatus of government (institutions certain amount of property was an
like a parliament or congress, plus civil eligibility criterion. Women had to wait
service officials) ruling over a given longer for the vote.
territory. Government authority is The third type of citizenship rights
backed by a legal system and by the are social rights. These concern the


Activity 10

Find out when women got voting rights in different countries. Why do you think
that despite the right to vote and the right to stand for public office, women are
so inadequately represented? Will power in its wider sense be a useful concept
to understand this under-representation in the Parliament and other bodies?
Does the existing division of labour within families and households impact
women’s participation in political life? Find out why there is a demand for 33
per cent reservation for women in the Parliament?

prerogative of every individual to enjoy community. Thus, individuals feel a
a certain minimum standard of sense of pride and belonging, in being
economic welfare and security. They ‘British’, ‘Indian’, ‘Indonesian’ or
include such rights as health benefits, ‘French’. Probably people have always
unemployment allowance, setting of felt some kind of identity with social
minimum level of wages. The groups of one form or another — for
broadening of social or welfare rights example, their family, clan or religious
led to the welfare state, which was community. Nationalism, however, only
established in Western societies since made its appearance with the
the Second World War. States of the development of the modern state.
erstwhile socialist countries had Contemporary world is marked both by
far-reaching provision in this sector. In a rapid expansion of the global market
most developing countries, this was as well as intense nationalist feelings
virtually non-existent. All over the and conflicts.
world today these social rights are Sociology has been interested in the
being attacked as liabilities on the state broader study of power, not just with
and hindrances to economic growth. the formal apparatus of government. It
Nationalism can be defined as a set has been interested in the distribution
of symbols and beliefs providing the of power between parties, between
sense of being part of a single political classes, between castes, and between

Activity 11 Activity 12

Collect information about different Collect information of events that
states doing away with social show the growth of global inter -
rights. Find out what explanation connectedness as well as instances
is given for this. Discuss and of divisions along ethnic, religious,
see whether you can see the national conflicts. Discuss how
relationship between the economic, politics and economics may have a
political and social spheres. part to play in them.


communities based on race, language it to domestic life, economic life and
and religion. Its focus is not just on what political life.
may be called specifically political Religion exists in all known
association, such as state legislatures, societies, although religious beliefs and
town councils and political parties but practices vary from culture to culture.
also associations such as schools, Characteristics that all religions seem
banks and religious institutions whose to share are:
aims are not primarily political. The
´ set of symbols, invoking feelings of
scope of sociology has been wide. Its
reverence or awe;
range has extended from the study of
´ rituals or ceremonies;
international movements (such as
´ a community of believers.
women or environmental) to village
factions. The rituals associated with religion
are very diverse. Ritual acts may include
V praying, chanting, singing, eating
certain kinds of food (or refraining from
RELIGION doing so), fasting on certain days, and
Religion has been a subject of study so on. Since ritual acts are oriented
and reflection for a very long time. In towards religious symbols, they are
Chapter 1, we have seen how usually seen as quite distinct from the
sociological findings about society are habits and procedures of ordinary life.
different from religious reflections. The Lighting a candle or diya to honour the
sociological study of religion is different divine differs completely in its
from a religious or theological study of significance from doing so simply to
religion in many ways. One, it conducts light a room. Religious rituals are often
empirical studies of how religions carried out by an individual in his/her
actually function in society and its personal everyday life. But all religions
relationship to other institutions. Two, also involve ceremonials practised
it uses a comparative method. Three, it collectively by believers. Regular
investigates religious beliefs, practices ceremonials normally occur in special
and institutions in relation to other places — churches, mosques, temples,
aspects of society and culture. shrines.
The empirical method means that Religion is about the sacred realm.
the sociologist does not have a Think of what members of different
judgemental approach to religious religions do before entering a sacred
phenomena. The comparative method realm. For example covering one’s head,
is important because in a sense it or not covering one’s head, taking off
brings all societies on level with each shoes, or wearing particular kind of
other. It helps to study without bias clothes, etc. What is common to them
and prejudice. The sociological all is the feeling of awe, recognition
perspective means that religious life and respect for a sacred places or
can be made intelligible only by relating situations.


Sociologists of religion, following aspects of society. Why do you think
Emile Durkheim, are interested in this is so?
understanding this sacred realm which A pioneering work by Max Weber
every society distinguishes from (1864 -1920) demonstrates how
the profane. In most cases, the sociology looks at religion in its
sacred includes an element of the relationship to other aspects of social
supernatural. Often the sacred quality and economic behaviour. Weber argues
of a tree or a temple comes with the that Calvinism (a branch of Protestant
belief that it is sacred precisely because Christianity) exerted an important
there is some supernatural force behind influence on the emergence and growth
it. However, it is important to keep in of capitalism as a mode of economic
mind that some religions like early organisation. The Calvinists believed
Buddhism and Confucianism had no that the world was created for the glory
conception of the supernatural, but did of God, meaning that any work in this
allow sufficient reverence for things and world had to be done for His glory,
persons which they considered sacred. making even mundane works acts of
Studying religion sociologically worship. More importantly, however,
lets us ask questions about the the Calvinists also believed in the
relationship of religion with other social concept of predestination, which meant
institutions. Religion has had a very that whether one will go to heaven or
close relationship with power and hell was pre-ordained. Since there was
politics. For instance periodically in
no way of knowing whether one has
history there have been religious
been assigned heaven or hell, people
movements for social change, like
sought to look for signs of God’s will in
various anti-caste movements
this world, in their own occupations.
or movements against gender
Thus if a person in whatever profession,
discrimination. Religion is not just a
was consistent and successful in his or
matter of the private belief of an
individual but it also has a public her work, it was interpreted as a sign
character. And it is th is public character of God’s happiness. The money earned
of religion, which has an important was not to be used for worldly
bearing on other institutions of society. consumption; rather the ethics of
We have seen how sociology looks Calvinism was to live frugally. This
at power in a wide sense. It is therefore meant that investment became
of sociological interest to look at the something like a holy creed. At the
relationship between the political and heart of capitalism is the concept of
religious sphere. Classical sociologists investment, which is about investing
believed that as societies modernised, capital to make more goods, which
religion would become less influential create more profit, which in turn
over the various spheres of life. The creates more capital. Thus Weber was
concept secularisation describes this able to argue that religion, in this case
process. Contemporary events suggest Calvinism, does have an influence on
a persisting role of religion various economic development.


Religion cannot be studied as a
VI
separate entity. Social forces always
and invariably influence religious EDUCATION
institutions. Political debates, economic Education is a life long process,
situations and gender norms will involving both formal and informal
always influence religious behaviour. institutions of learning. Here we are
Conversely, religious norms influence however confining ourselves only to
and sometimes even determine social school education. We are all aware how
understanding. Women constitute half important getting admission into a
of the world’s population. Sociologically school is. We also know, for many of us,
therefore it becomes important to ask school is a step towards higher
what relationship this vast segment of education and finally employment. For
human population has with religion. some of us it may mean acquiring some
Religion is an important part of society necessary social skills. What is common
and is inextricably tied to other parts. in all cases is that there is a felt need
The task of sociologists is to unravel for education.
these various interconnections. In Sociology understands this need as
traditional societies, religion usually a process of transmission/commu-
plays a central part in social life. nication of group heritage, common to
Religious symbols and rituals are often all societies. There is a qualitative
integrated with the material and artistic distinction between simple societies
culture of society. Read the extract and complex, modern societies. In the
which is given below in the box to get a case of the former there was no need
sense of how sociology studies religion. for formal schooling. Children learnt

Many extraneous factors have affected the traditional lives of the religious
specialists. The most important of these are the growth of new employment and
educational opportunities in Nasik... after Independence, the way of life of the
priests has been changing fast. Now the sons and daughters are sent to school,
and are trained for jobs other than traditional ones… Like all places of pilgrimage,
Nasik also gave rise to supplementary centres around religious activities. It was
a normal routine for a pilgrim to take home the sacred water of the Godavari in
a copper pot. The coppersmiths provided these wares. The pilgrims also bought
wares, which they took home to be distributed as gifts among their relatives and
friends. For long Nasik was known for its proficient craftsmen in brass, copper
and silver... Since the demand for their wares is intermittent and uncertain,
not all the adult males can be supported by this occupation... Many
craftsmen have entered industry and business-both small and large scale
(Acharya 1974: 399-401).


customs and the broader way of life by For Emile Durkheim, no society can
participating in activities with their survive without a ‘common base-a
adults. In complex societies, we saw certain number of ideas, sentiments
there is an increasing economic division and practices which education must
of labour, separation of work from inculcate in all children indiscriminately,
home, need for specialised learning and to whatever social category they belong’
skill attainment, rise of state systems, (Durkheim 1956: 69). Education
nations and complex set of symbols and should prepare the child for a special
ideas. How do you get educated occupation, and enable the child to
informally in such a context? How internalise the core values of society.
would parents or other adults The functionalist sociologist thus
informally communicate all that has to speaks in terms of general social
be known to the next generation? needs and social norms. For the
Education in such a social context has functionalists, education maintains
to be formal and explicit. and renews the social structure,
Furthermore modern complex transmits and develops culture. The
societies in contrast to simple societies educational system is an important
rest on abstract universalistic values. mechanism for the selection and
This is what distinguishes it from a allocation of the individuals in their
simple society that depends on future roles in the society. It is also
particularistic values, based on family, regarded as the ground for proving
kin, tribe, caste or religion. Schools in one’s ability and hence selective
modern societies are designed to agency for different status according
promote uniformity, standardised to their abilities. Recall our
aspirations and universalistic values. discussion on the functionalist
There are many ways of doing this. For understanding of roles and
example one can speak of ‘uniform stratification in Chapter 2.
dress for school children’. Can you For the sociologists who perceive
think of other features that promote society as unequally differentiated,
standardisation? education functions as a main

Discuss the visuals


stratifying agent. And at the same The above report indicates how
time the inequality of educational gender and caste discrimination
opportunity is also a product of social impinges upon the chances of
stratification. In other words we go to education. Recall how we began this
different kinds of schools depending on book in Chapter 1 about a child’s
our socio-economic background. And
because we go to some kind of schools,
we acquire different kind of privileges
and finally opportunities.
For instance some argue that
schooling ‘intensifies the existing divide
between the elite and the masses.’
Children going to privileged schools
learn to be confident while children
deprived of that may feel the opposite
(Pathak 2002:151). However, there are
many more children who simply cannot
attend school or drop out. For instance
a study reports :

You are seeing some children in the
school now. If you come during the
cultivation season you may see
almost zero attendance from the SC
and ST children. They all take some
household responsibilities while the
parents are out to work. And the girl Discuss the visual
children of these communities
seldom attend school as they do chances for a good job being shaped
various kinds of work both domestic by a host of social factors. Your
and income generating. A 10 year understanding of the way social
old girl picks dry cow dung to sell institutions function should help you
for example (Pratichi 2002:60). analyse the process better now.

Activity 13

A study of a kindergarten suggested that children learn that:
´ ‘work activities are more important than play activities’.
´ ‘work includes any and all teacher -directed activities.’
´ ‘work is compulsory and free time activities are called play’ (Apple 1979:102).

What do you think? Discuss.


GLOSSARY

Citizen : A member of a political community, having both rights and duties
associated with that membership.
Division of Labour : The specialisation of work tasks, by means of which
different occupations are combined within a production system. All societies
have at least some rudimentary form of division of labour. With the
development of industrialism, however, the division of labour becomes vastly
more complex than in any prior type of production system. In the modern
world, the division of labour is international in scope.
Gender : Social expectations about behaviour regarded as appropriate for
the members of each sex. Gender is seen as a basic organising principle of
society.
Empirical Investigation : Factual enquiry carried out in any given area of
sociological study.
Endogamy : When marriage is within a specific caste, class or tribal group.
Exogamy : When marriage occurs outside a certain group of relations.
Ideology : Shared ideas or beliefs, which serve to justify the interests of
dominant groups. Ideologies are found in all societies in which there are
systematic and engrained inequalities between groups. The concept of
ideology connects closely with that of power, since ideological systems serve
to legitimise the differential power which groups hold.
Legitimacy : The belief that a particular political order is just and valid.
Monogamy : When marriage involves one husband and one wife alone.
Polygamy : When marriage involves more than one mate at one time.
Polyandry : When more than one man is married to a woman.
Polygyny : When more than one woman is married to a man.
Service Industries : Industries concerned with the production of services
rather than manufactured goods, such as the travel industry.
State Society : A society which possesses a formal apparatus of government.
Stateless Society : A society which lacks formal institutions of government.
Social Mobility : Movement from one status or occupation to another.
Sovereignty : The undisputed political rule of a state over a given territorial
area.


EXERCISES

1. Note what are the marriage rules that are followed in your society.
Compare your observations with that made by other students in the
class. Discuss.
2. Find out how membership, residence pattern and even the mode of
interaction changes in the family with broader economic, political and
cultural changes, for instance migration.
3. Write an essay on ‘work’. Focus on both the range of occupations, which
exist and how they change.
4. Discuss the kind of rights that exist in your society. How do they affect
your life?
5. How does sociology study religion?
6. Write an essay on the school as a social institution. Draw from both your
reading as well as your personal observations.
7. Discuss how these social institutions interact with each other. You can
start the discussion from yourself as a senior school student. And move
on to how you are shaped by different social institutions. Are you entirely
controlled or can you also resist and redefine social institutions?

READINGS

ACHARYA, HEMLATA. 1974. ‘Changing Role of Religious Specialists in Nasik —
The Pilgrim City’, in ed. RAO, M.S. An Urban Sociology in India : Reader
and Source Book, Orient Longman, New Delhi, pp. 391-403.
APPLE, MICHAEL W. 1979. Ideology and Curriculum. Routledge and Kegan Paul,
LONDON.
CHUGTAI, ISMAT. 2004. Tiny’s Granny in Contemporary Indian Short Stories;
Series 1. Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi.
DUBE, LEELA. 2001. Anthropological Explorations in Gender : Intersecting Fields.
Sage Publications, New Delhi.
DURKHEIM, EMILE. 1956. Education and Sociology. The Free Press, New York.
PATHAK, AVIJIT. 2002. Social Implications of Schooling : Knowledge, Pedagogy
and Consciousness. Rainbow Publishers, Delhi.
PRATICHI. 2002. The Pratichi Education Report. Pratichi Trust, Delhi.


R OY C HOUDHUR Y , S UPRIYA . 2005. ‘Labour Activism and Women in the
Unorganised Sector : Garment Export Industry in Bangalore’, Economic
and Political Weekly. May 28-June 4. pp. 2250-2255.
SHAH, A.M. 1998. Family in India : Critical Essays. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.
S INGH , Y OGENDRA . 1993. Social Change in India : Crisis and Resilience.
Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi.
UBEROI, PATRICIA. 2002. ‘Family, Kinship and Marriage in India’, in Student’s
Britannica, India. Vol.6, pp.145-155. Encyclopedia Britannica Private Ltd,
New Delhi.

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