2. Paradigm
• Paradigm is a set of propositions that explain how
the world is perceived, it contains a world view, a way of breaking
down the complexity of the real world.
“A paradigm is a set of beliefs, values techniques which are shared by
members of a scientific community, and which acts as a guide or map
dictating the kinds of problems scientist should address and the types
of explanation that are acceptable”. (Kuhn, 1970)
3. Three major paradigms
1. Positivistic perspective
2. Interpretive perspective
3. Critical perspective
4. Positivistic Perspective
It is the oldest paradigm. Linked with the work of A. Comte and E.
Durkeim
It defines reality as everything that can be perceived through the
senses; other sources of knowledge are unreliable.
Reality is out there, independent of human consciousness.
Reality is objective, rests on order and is governed by strict, natural
and unchangeable laws.
It can be realized through experience.
5. Interpretive Perspective
Interpretative social science relates to the works of Vico, Dilthey, and
Weber.
Interpretive theorists believe that reality is not ‘out there’ but in the
minds of the people.
Reality is internally experienced, is socially constructed through
interaction and interpreted through the actors and is based on the
definition people attach to it.
Reality is not objective but subjective.
6. Critical Perspective
This was developed out of the work of Karl Marx and the critical,
theorists and feminists.
Critical theorists see reality in a different manner. Reality is created not
by nature but by the powerful people who manipulate condition and
brainwash others to perceive things the way they want them to, to
serve the needs of the powerful.
7. What is a theory?
Sir Karl Popper, a philosopher instrumental in shaping 20th century
views of knowledge, says :
“Theories are nets cast to catch what we call the world.”
Popper was primarily interested in investigating the way in which we
come to understand the natural and physical world, but his view are
also highly appropriate in a consideration of how we come to know
about the human and social world in which we live.
8. Two approaches to theory building:
Deductive approach
Inductive approach
9. Deductive Approach
From the general to particular; the process by which theory is tested
Deductive approach to theory building tends to give primacy to theory.
That is, abstract theories are developed early after initial sensitizing
observation, and then empirical observations are used to test those
theories. The researcher begins with a general idea or theory and asks
a specific statement or hypothesis, then tests the hypothesis with the
collection of data. The movement is from the general proposition to
the specific instances seen in the research.
10. Inductive Approach
Inductive approach to theory building gives primacy to observation.
FROM THE PARTICULAR TO THE GENERAL; THE PROCESS BY WHICH
THEORY IS GENERATED. In this approach, theoretical abstractions are
based on- or grounded in empirical observation. The scholars immerse
themselves in the situations and then come up to any conclusions. The
researcher begins with a simple research question and collects data
that describe a particular case, and then develops a theory based upon
findings.
11. Models in communication research
What are models?
Models are a theoretical and simplified representation of the real
world. A model is not an explanatory device by itself, but it helps to
formulate theory. It suggests relationships, and it is often confused
with theory because the relationship between a model and a theory is
so close.
12. Definitions
“A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a
piece of reality. A model seeks to show the main elements of any
structure or process and the relationships between these elements”.
(McQuail).
Deutsch in 1952 pointed out that:
1. Model is a structure of symbols and operating rules which is
supposed to match a set of relevant points in an existing structure or
process.
2. Models are indispensable for understanding the more complex
processes.
3. This is a form of selection and abstraction.
13. KINDS OF MODELS
Structural model
Functional model
Structural model
Some models claim only to describe the structure of a phenomenon.
In this sense, a diagram of the components of a radio set or diagram of
a digestive system etc, could be described as “structural’.
14. Functional models
Functional models, describe systems in terms of energy, forces and their direction, the
relations between parts and the influence of one part on another. The communication
models fall into this category, simply all communication is in some degree dynamic and
involves some elements of process or change Before we study the communication models
lets first look into the most general terms what communication implies. It implies
• Sender (encoder)
• A channel
• A message
• A receiver (decoder)
• A receiver between sender and receiver
• An effect
• A context in which communication occurs and
• A range of things to which messages refer
• Feedback – any process by which the communicator obtains information about whether
and how the intended receiver has indeed received the message
15. Three different ways of viewing
communication processes
1. Linear model
2. Interactive model
3. Transactional
16. LINEAR MODELS
Linear models are based on the principles of stimulus-response psychology,
in which a receiver is affected (response) by a message (stimulus) that
emanates from a communication source. These models depict the
communication process as a series of progressive, linear steps in the
transmission of ideas from one person to another.
Lasswell formula
Who says (communicator)
What to (message)
In which channel (channel)
To whom (receiver)
With what effect (effect)
17. Cont…
Lasswell formula corresponding with communication research
Who says (control studies)
What to (content analysis)
In which channel (media analysis)
To whom (audience analysis)
With what effect (effect analysis)
Boaddock’s extension of the Lasswell formula
Who Says
What to
In which channel
To whom
Under what circumstances?
For what purpose?
With what effect)
18. Cont…
• Shannon-Weaver model
One of the first linear models of communication, known as the Shannon-Weaver model,
(developed in 1940’s) described the process of telecommunication. They developed a model that
depicts a message emanating from an information source, which becomes a signal after passing
through a transmitter, depending upon the amount of noise or interference present, the signal
passes through to a receiver, where it is decoded as a message.
• Westley - MacLean model
This model (originated in 1950s) differs from the Shannon-Weaver model in that they include
mechanism for FEEDBACK or return flow of information from a receiver to the original source, and
gate keeping, a mechanism (usually a person) that has the power to control information and even
prevent it from reaching a destination .
The gatekeeper was thought to be an important new dimension of communication models to
many in mass communication, because it serves as an analog for editors, e.g. who control and
select the messages that ultimately get to readers of newspapers or viewers of news programs.
19. INTERACTIVE MODELS
This model which depicts communication as an interactive process
originated in the 1950’s.The Osgood and Schramm interactive model
emphasizes the sharing of information between communicator, who
gives and receive information interactively.
Osgood and Schramm interactive model
The circular model describes communication as interactive and
interpretive, with communicators almost simultaneously sending and
receiving messages. Each person alternates in his or her role as encoder
interpreter and decoder of shared messages.
20. TRANSACTIONAL MODELS
This model takes into consideration the character of the message and
the psychological orientation of the audience member as factors
influencing the power of media effects.
OTA transactional model
The OTA (US office of technology assessment) transactional model
separates communication into three distinct processes:
1. Message formulation
2. Message interpretation
3. Message exchange
And emphasizes the interdependencies of the processes.
