2. Outline
Part I – Select a Topic:
- The steps followed by a researcher before developing
a scholarly research
Part II – Writing a Research Proposal:
- The various chapters (usually Chap 1, 2, & 3) and
sections used to develop a research proposal for a
thesis or dissertation
Part III: - Writing the Results:
- The various chapters (usually Chap 4 & 5) and
sections used to write the results/discussion and
conclusion.
2
3. Part I: Primary Consideration
• 1. The Selection of a Research Approach
• 2. Review of the Literature
• 3. The Use of Theory
• 4. Writing Strategies
3
4. Part I: Primary Consideration
1. The Selection of a Research Approach
4
5. 5
How Do We Understand the Social World
and Social Life?
Quantitative methods
Trends, graphs,
statistics
Cause-and-effect
(factors that influence)
Comparison of groups
Frames study using
theory
Qualitative methods
Individual stories
Different perspectives
Complexity of situation
Builds up to a theory
6. The Story of Mixed Methods Research
How mixed methods
began and initially developed
has become defined
grew in philosophical ways
developed technically
became a “movement”
has come under criticism
continues to evolve as a methodology
6
7. Basics of quantitative research
Researcher makes decisions before study (variables, hypotheses,
instruments)
Researcher reduced the inquiry to a small number of variables to
study and a large number of people
Researcher asks specific closed-ended questions
Researcher analyzes numbers
Researcher places importance on reliability, validity, generalizability,
replicability, control, and lack of bias
Researcher writes the report using a standard structure
7
8. Basics of qualitative research
Researcher makes decisions based on views of participants
Researcher opens the inquiry up to understand the complexity of the
situation
Researcher asks open-ended questions – single phenomenon
Researcher analyzes words and images
Researcher places emphasis on individual meaning, context, and
self-reflexivity
Researcher writes the report using a flexible, literary structure
8
9. 9
Reasons for “mixing”
The insufficient argument – either quantitative or qualitative may be
insufficient by itself
Multiple angles argument – quantitative and qualitative approaches provide
different “pictures”
The more-evidence-the-better argument – combined quantitative and
qualitative provides more evidence
Community of practice argument – mixed methods may be the preferred
approach within a scholarly community
Eager-to-learn argument – it is the latest methodology
“Its intuitive” argument – it mirrors “real life”
10. Part I: Primary Consideration
2. Review of the Literature
10
11. Define what a literature review is and why it is
important
Identify the five steps in conducting a
literature review
11
12. What Is a Literature Review?
A written summary of the literature
Describes past and current information and research
Organized into topics
Reports the literature based on themes or individual
studies
Documents a need for your proposed study
12
13. Literature Review in a Quantitative
Study
Documents the importance of the research problem at
the beginning of the study
Supports the theory or explanation used in the study
Foreshadows the research questions
Provides an explanation for the results in other studies
and in the theoretical prediction at the end of the study
13
14. Literature Review in a Qualitative
Study
Documents the importance of the research problem at the
beginning of the study
Does not foreshadow the research questions (which are
broad in scope to encourage participants to provide their
own views)
Is used to compare and contrast with other studies at the
end of the study
14
15. The Process of Conducting
a Literature Review
Identify key terms
Locate literature
Critically evaluate and select the literature
Organize the literature
Write a review (See Part II)
15
16. Identifying Key Terms
Write a preliminary “working title” for the project and
select two or three key words that capture the essence
of the project
Pose a short general research question that you would
like to answer in the study
Look in catalogues of terms to find words that match
your topic
Scan the contents in your library stacks and the table of
contents of educational journals 16
17. Priority/Value of Sources
in the Literature
Summaries
Journals, books, indexes, databases
Early stage literature (e.g., papers posted on Web sites,
conference papers)
17
18. Examples of Databases Used
in Educational Research
ERIC
PsycINFO
Sociofile
Social Science Citation Index
EBSCO
Dissertation Abstracts
Datastream
Bankscope
18
19. Critically Evaluate and Select
the Literature
Is it a good, accurate source?
National/International journal?
Reviewed source?
Research study?
19
20. Critically Evaluate and Select
the Literature
Is the source worthy of inclusion?
Topic relevance: Is the literature on the same topic as
your proposed study?
Individual and site relevance: Does the literature
examine the same individuals and sites you want to
study?
Problem relevance: Does the literature examine the
same research problem as you propose in your study?
Accessibility relevance: Is the literature available in
your library or can it be downloaded from a Web site? 20
21. Organize the Literature:
Abstracting Studies
Contents of abstracts vary for research studies and
essays.
The structure is essentially the same for quantitative and
qualitative research studies:
Research problem
Research questions/hypotheses
Data collection procedures
Results/findings
21
22. Organize the Literature:
Developing a Literature Review Matrix
From the research papers to be reviewed, prepare an Excel
Spreadsheet of 10 columns revealing the following:
1. Authors Ref.: showing the name of authors, year, title, and journal
2. Research Objectives: showing goals of the article
3. Research Questions: showing the paper’s research questions
4. Analysis Method: Regression, Econometrics, etc.
5. Dataset and Sample Size: showing sample, population, period
covered, etc.
6. Variables: showing factors involved
7. Theory applied: Agency, Stewardship, Stockholder, Stakeholder, etc.
8. Significant Results/Findings: Impact of so & so variables on others
9. Importance: marking the paper Important, Very Important, Not
Important, etc.
10. For Use in: in which chapter most likely you will use such paper 22
23. Organize the Literature:
Developing a Literature Review Matrix
From the research papers to be reviewed, prepare an Excel
Spreadsheet of 10 columns revealing the following:
Example:
23
Authors Ref.
Research
Objectives
Research
Questions
Analysis Method
Dataset and
Sample Size
Variables Theory Applied Significant Results Importance For Use in
Prencipe & Bar-Yosef
(2011). CG & Earnings
Management in Family-
Controlled Companies
To shed light on the
earnings
management issue in
family-controlled
companies characterized
by potentially lower board
independence and a higher
risk of collusion.
What's the relationship
between Corporate
Govenance & Earnnings
Mgmt in Family-
Controlled Companies?
Regression analysis A sample composed of
nonfinancial companies
listed on the Milan Stock
Exchange (MSE) was
selected covering the years
2003 and 2004. The
sample was selected over a
period preceding the
adoption of IFRS to avoid
complexities related to the
transition to IFRS and
implications of its
adoption. Given the
relatively small size of the
Italian stock market, the
number of nonfinancial
companies listed on the
MSE was 137 and 140 in
2003 and 2004,
respectively.
Family-controlled, No
duality, Audit,
Institutional, firm size,
Board size, Leverage,
ROA, etc.
Agency Theory Impact of board
independence on earnings
management is indeed
weaker in familycontrolled
companies. The same
result also holds for the
lack of CEO– board
chairman duality function.
Such effects become
stronger in cases in which
the CEO is a member of
the controlling family.
Important Chap 2 & 3
25. Chapter Outline
Quantitative Theory Use
Variables in Quantitative Research
Definition of a Theory
Forms of Theories
Placement of Quantitative Theories
Writing a Quantitative Theoretical Perspective
Qualitative Theory Use
Variation in Theory Use in Qualitative Research
Locating the Theory in Qualitative Research
Mixed Methods Theory Use
25
26. Variables in Quantitative Research
Independent
Variables that probably cause outcomes
Dependent
The outcomes that depend on the independent variables
Intervening or mediating
Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables “Just
Bridges”
Moderating
New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables “Make Differences”
Control
Independent variables that are measured and statistically "controlled“
Confounding
Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be
measured 26
27. Forms of Theories
Theory
Interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions
that specify the relationships among variables
Describes how and why variables are related
Forms include
Set of hypotheses
Series of if-then statements
Visual model
27
28. The Deductive Approach Used in
Quantitative Research
28
Researcher measures or observes variables
using an instrument to obtain scores
Researcher defines and operationalizes
variables derived from the theory
Researcher tests hypotheses or research
questions from the theory
Researcher tests or verifies a theory
29. Placing Theory in a Quantitative Study
Placement Advantages Disadvantages
In the introduction Common approach; familiar to
readers; conveys a deductive
approach
Difficult for a reader to isolate
theory base from other
components of the research
process
In the literature
review
Including theories in a literature
review is a logical extension or
part of the literature
Difficult for a reader to see the
theory in isolation from the larger
literature
After hypotheses or
research questions
The theory discussion explains
how and why variables are
related
May leave out an extended
discussion about the origin and
use of the theory
In a separate
section
Clearly separates the theory
from other components of the
research process, enables a
reader to better identify and to
understand the theory base
The theory discussion is isolated
and may not easily connect with
other components of the
research process
29
30. Theory Use in Qualitative Research
Theory may be used as:
A broad explanation
A theoretical lens or perspective
Feminist perspective
Racialzed discourse
Critical theory
Queer theory
Disability inquiry
An endpoint, a theory that is generated
Researcher may also choose not to employ theory in a
qualitative study
30
31. The Inductive Logic of Research in a
Qualitative Study
31
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants
or records fieldnotes
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or
categories
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations,
or theories from themes or categories
Researcher poses generalizations, or theories, and
compares to past experiences and literature
Researcher gathers information
33. Writing the Proposal
What does the intended reader/audience need to understand
better about the topic?
What does the audience know little about the topic?
What is the purpose of the study?
What /Who is being studied?
What is the setting/environment where the study is occurring?
What method is to be used? 33
34. Writing the Proposal
How will data be collected and analyzed?
How will the results be validated?
What ethical issues arise from the study?
What does the preliminary results about the practicality
and value of the study to be conducted?
34
35. Format of Qualitative Constructivist /
Interpretivist Research
Introduction
Procedures
State the assumptions in qualitative research
Provide the qualitative research strategy
Outline the role of the researcher
Detail the data collection procedures
Explain the strategies for validating the findings
Present the proposed narrative structure of the study
35
36. Format of Qualitative Constructivist /
Interpretivist Research
Anticipated Ethical Issues
Preliminary Findings
Expected Outcomes
Appendixes
36
37. Format of Advocacy / Participatory
Research
Introduction
Procedures
State the assumptions in qualitative research
Provide the qualitative research strategy
Outline the role of the researcher
Detail the data collection & recording procedures
Describe the data analysis procedure and explain the
strategies for validating the findings
Present the proposed narrative structure of the study
37
38. Format of Advocacy / Participatory
Research
Anticipated Ethical Issues
Significance of the Study
Preliminary Findings (if available)
Expected Advocacy / Participatory Changes
Appendixes
38
39. Qualitative Proposals
Introduction
State the problem
Include existing literature about problem
Explain the significance of the study
State the purpose of the study
Present the research question
39
41. Quantitative Proposals
Introduction
State the problem
Include issue and/or significance of issue
State the purpose of the study
Define the theoretical perspective
Present the research question or hypothesis
Review the literature 41
42. Format of Quantitative Research
Provide the Methods Used
State the Significance of the Study
Present the Preliminary Findings (if available)
Describe Anticipated Ethical Issues
Outline the Preliminary Study or Pilot
Appendixes 42
43. Quantitative Research Method
Method of Research
Research Design
Population, Sample and Participants
Data Collection – Variables, Instruments & Materials
Analysis Procedures
43
Notas do Editor
Quantitative data
Close-ended scales
Attitudinal/behavioral scales
Behavioral checklists
Census, attendance records
Qualitative data
Open-ended responses
Semi-structured interviews
Semi-structured observations
Records/documents
Videotapes
Images such as pictures or drawings