Hazwoper hazardous waste site 40 hour student initial course manual

Copyright 2012 www.environmentaleducation.com
Hazwoper Hazardous Waste Site-40 Hour
Course Description: This course provides occupational health and safety training to technical/field
personnel involved in site activities including; initial site characterization, field investigation, and
remediation operations. The basic components of the Program are designed to provide workers with
training specific to the types of health and safety hazards present at typical. This course meets OSHA &
EPA requirements. Those working in hazardous waste cleanups, including removal of PCBs, should
attend. This five-day course satisfies the training requirements of 29 CFR 1910.120, Hazardous Waste
Operations and Emergency Response.
To register for a course near you call 888.436.8338 or email training@environmentaleducation.com
today.
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Environmental Education Associates is a leader in certified environmental and safety training, serving
Metropolitan New York City, Long Island, and greater New York State with Training Centers in:
Brooklyn, Buffalo, Rochester and Syracuse.

OSHA HAZARDOUS WASTE

OPERATIONS AND EMERGENCY

RESPONSE

40 HOUR TRAINING
STUDENT TRAINING HANDBOOK

Table of Contents

Introduction
Section 1 Environmental and Safety Regulations
Clean Air Act
Clean Water Act
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA
Comprehensive Environmental Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
Medical Waste Tracking Act
Safe Drinking Water Act
Toxic Substance Control Act
Hazardous Materials Transportation Act
Occupational Safety and Health Act
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard
Hazard Communication Standard
Hazardous Materials Identification Systems
Section 2 Hazard Recognition Evaluation & Control
Chemical Hazards

Physical Hazards

Biological Hazards

Radiation Hazards

Confined Space Hazards

Physiological Hazards

Environmental Hazards

Section 3 Monitoring Instruments
Characteristics of Air Monitoring Instruments

Hazardous Atmospheres

Instrument Controls

Certification

Direct Read Instruments

Section 4 Toxicology and Exposure Guidelines
Routes of Exposure

The Dose-Response Relationship

Sources of Toxicity Information

Uses of Toxicity Information

Health Effects

Types of Toxic Effects

Exposure Guidelines

Section 5 Respiratory Protection
Respiratory Hazards

The Respiratory Protection Standard

Respiratory Use and Selection

Air Purifying Respirators

Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators

Section 6 Protective Clothing and Safety Equipment
Performance Requirements For Chemical Protective Clothing
Chemical Resistance
Classification of Chemical Protective Clothing
Protective Materials
Heat Stress
Levels of Protection
Section 7 Site Entry and Reconnaissance
Initial Assessment

Site Safety Planning

Initial Site Survey

Subsequent Site Characterization

Section 8 Decontamination
Decontamination Plan and Objective

Prevention of Contamination

Factors of Contamination

Decontamination Methods

Selection of Decontamination Equipment

Zone Layout

Decontamination Solutions

Standard Operating Procedures

Decontamination of Equipment

Decontamination Worker Protection

Medical Emergency Decontamination

Effectiveness of Decontamination

Disposal of Decontaminated Materials

Section 9 Site Organization and Management
Organization

Managing Site Operations

Safety Meetings and Inspections

Section 10 Safety Planning/Emergencies and Emergency Preparedness
Site Health and Safety Plan (HASP)

Emergency Preparedness and Contingency Planning

Confined Space Concerns

Appendix A – Abbreviations and Acronyms
Appendix B – Glossary
Appendix C – References and Information Sources
Appendix D – OSHA Standard 29 CFR 1910.120

HAZARDOUS WASTE OPERATIONS AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE

HEALTH AND SAFETY TRAINING COURSE

Training Objectives
This course is designed for personnel who are involved with the investigation and remediation of
uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, or who are active in other operations or activities at sites that
use or used hazardous materials/substances or produced hazardous waste. To a lesser extent, it is
designed for personnel who respond to accidents or releases of hazardous materials. It provides
basic information needed to meet the requirements of 29 CFR 1910.120, "Hazardous Waste
Operations and Emergency response." The course, along with this manual, provides specific
information needed to evaluate site hazards and implement safety procedures to protect the
health and safety of site personnel.
The objective of this course is to instruct participants in the:
 Methods and procedures for recognizing, evaluating and controlling site hazards
 Concepts, principles, guidelines and regulations for protecting the health and safety of
site personnel
 Fundamentals of management and organization of site operations
 Use of personal protective equipment and direct-reading monitoring instruments
Manual Objectives
This manual is a guidance document for personnel responsible for occupational health and safety
at work sites containing hazardous materials/substances/waste or other hazardous conditions. It
is intended for use as:
 A supplement to the HAZWOPER training course
 An educational tool to provide a comprehensive overview of health and safety protection
at contaminated and hazardous substances/waste sites
 A reference document for site personnel to overview important aspects of health and
safety
This manual is not a detailed industrial hygiene textbook or a comprehensive book on
occupational health and safety. It provides general guidance and must be used as a preliminary
reference for developing proper safety guidelines and programs. The appropriateness of
information provided should always be evaluated with regard to site-specific conditions. Other
sources and experienced personnel should be consulted as necessary for the detail required to
design and implement occupational health and safety programs at specific sites.
Although this manual cites specific federal and/or State regulations it is not a definitive legal
document and should not be used as such. Individuals responsible for the health and safety of
site personnel should obtain and comply with the most recent, applicable regulations and are
urged to consult with appropriate federal, provincial, state and local agencies.
No warranty, guarantee, or representation, expressed or implied, is made by or on behalf of
Environmental Education Associates as to the absolute correctness or sufficiency of any
representation contained in this document. The mention of a product or company does not
constitute endorsement by Environmental Education Associates.

SECTION I. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY
REGULATIONS
SECTION OBJECTIVES
After reading this section, the student will have an increased knowledge of:
• The basic environmental and safety regulations of the United States;
• Requirements for hazardous waste/material/substance site operations;
• Site safety requirements;
• The identification of regulatory agency responsibilities.
SECTION OUTLINE
This section is an overview of US environmental regulations and standards:
• U.S. Occupational Safety Regulations: Occupational Health and Safety Act,
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard, and the Hazard
Communication Standard.
• U.S. Environmental Regulations: Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act, Comprehensive Environmental Responsibility and
Cleanup Liability Act, Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act,
Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act, Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act, Medical Waste Tracking Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and the
Toxic Substances Control Act.
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY REGULATIONS OVERVIEW
1.1.1 Clean Air Act
Air pollution has long been a major domestic environmental problem. The most frequently cited
air pollution tragedy occurred in the industrial town of Donora in Pennsylvania in November,
1948. During this smog event, nearly half of Donora’s 14,000 residents became sick and 20 died
from a four-day fog containing enormous loads of suspended particulates and acid mists
converted from the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
The extensive use of automobiles coupled with a prevalent Pacific high pressure system has kept
Los Angeles, California on constant alert for air pollution episodes from photochemical smog or
oxidants. The harmful effects of photochemical oxidants on the public health and welfare had
been well documented. These modern air pollution problems from motor vehicle emissions are
shared by many other urbanized metropolitan areas throughout the country.
In response to these and other air pollution problems, the Clean Air Act (CAA) was enacted on
December 17, 1963 as Public Law PL 88 - 206. Since its passage, air pollution research activities
and investigations have identified additional or new air pollution problems. Consequently, the
CAA has been amended 15 times. The last amendments (on October 22, 1990) triple the length
of the previous Act and significantly increased its complexity with requirements milestones
reaching well into the twenty-first century.
PURPOSE
The CAA and its amendments governs and guides the effort to:
• Improve the nation's air quality conditions to reduce and eventually eliminate adverse
effects of air pollution on public health and welfare;
• Maintain and prevent designated areas from air-quality degradation, where existing air-
quality conditions are documented to be in total compliance with the applicable national
ambient air quality standards;
• Provide research, investigations, and surveys to gain required scientific data on national
and global air pollution problems so that appropriate preventive measures can be
developed and implemented;
• Develop effective and practical processes, methods, strategies, programs, and prototype
devices for the prevention of air pollution and the reduction and elimination of mobile
and stationary pollution sources; and
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• Train personnel and disseminate information to the public so that environmentally sound,
institutionally acceptable, and cost-effective air pollution control strategies, programs,
and plans are implemented.
BASIC ELEMENTS
The 1990 Clean Air Act amendments contain 11 titles;
Title I: Attainment and Maintenance of National Ambient Air and Quality Standards
Title II: Mobile Sources Provisions
Title III: Hazardous Air Pollutants
Title IV: Acid Deposition Control
Title V: Permits
Title VI: Stratospheric Ozone Protection
Title VII: Enforcement
Title VIII: Miscellaneous Provisions
Title IX: Research
Title X: Disadvantaged Business Concerns
Title XI: Employee Transition Assistance
1.1.2 Clean Water Act
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act (CWA),
was passed in 1956. The 1956 Act was amended by the Water Quality Act of 1965, the Clean
Water Restoration Act of 1966, and the Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970. In 1972, the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, (PL 92-500) completely replaced the original
1956 Act and its amendments. Subsequent modifications to the CWA occurred through passage
of amendments in each of the years 1973-1983, and again in 1987 (PL 100-4).
PURPOSE
The CWA is to provide for the restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physical, and
biological integrity of the waters of the United States. This is reflected in a variety of national
goal and policy statements included in the Act; (1) the elimination of pollutants discharged to
navigable waters; (2) the maintenance of water quality sufficient for the protection and
propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and for recreation in and on the water; and (3) the
prohibition of toxic discharges.
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BASIC ELEMENTS
The CWA is divided into six titles, each of which is subdivided into multiple sections. The basic
components of the six titles and their sections are:
Title I: Research and Related Programs
Title I encourages and supports (including financial assistance) the development of cooperative
and other research, development, and demonstration programs and projects for better
understanding and control of water pollution, including administration of such programs.
Title II: Grants for Construction of Treatment Works
The purpose and central focus of Title II is to require and assist (including financial support) the
development and implementation of waste treatment management plans and practices intended to
achieve the goals of the CWA.
Title III: Standards and Enforcement
Title III includes the related topics of effluent limitations; water quality standards and criteria;
new source performance standards; inspections and monitoring; and enforcement.
Title IV: Permits and Licenses
Title IV is the permitting of dischargers and the management of pollutants in receiving waters.
Title V: General Provisions
This Title provides for the administrative management and oversight of the various programs and
initiatives of the CWA.
Title VI: State Water Pollution Control Revolving Funds
Revolving funds were added to the CWA by the 1987 amendments (PL 100-4), as a means of
financing the construction of municipal wastewater treatment facilities following the phase-out
of funding under §201 of the CWA.
1.1.3 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
The Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA) was passed in 1965 with the purpose of funding research
and providing technical assistance to state and local planners faced with the task of disposing of
solid waste generated by residential, commercial and industrial. In 1970 SWDA was enlarged
and restructured in the form of the Resource Recovery Act which promoted the adoption of
sanitary landfills and encourage a shift from mere disposal toward conservation, recycling, and
advanced control technology. Up to this point the legislation has focused mainly on the
traditional kinds of municipal trash-paper, glass, cans, and garbage. However mounting scientific
evidence indicated that waste generated by chemical and other industrial processes could be
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hazardous. Therefore, in 1976 Congress passed the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) as an amendment to the Solid Waste Disposal Act.
Under RCRA, EPA set standards for generators and transporters of hazardous waste and for
owners and operators of hazardous waste treatment, storage and disposal facilities. This cradle-
to-grave system has brought under regulation over 52,000 waste generators, approximately
12,000 transporters, and 5,000 treatment, storage and disposal facilities. Congress reauthorized
and amended RCRA in 1984, imposing new and far-reaching requirements and vastly expanding
the size of the regulated community. The Hazardous and Solid Waste amendments (HSWA) of
1984 applied to 175,000 small quantity generators and owners of over 1 million underground
storage tanks that had not been previously regulated. Additional controls were also placed on the
disposal of wastes in landfills and on the burning of waste derived fuels.
PURPOSE
The RCRA establishes a national policy of the United States that, "wherever feasible, the
generation of hazardous waste is to be reduced or eliminated as expeditiously as possible. Waste
that is nevertheless generated should be treated, stored, or disposed of so as to minimize the
present and future threat to human health and the environment”.
That policy is executed through the statement of 11 objectives to the Act:
• Providing tentacle and financial assistance to the states;
• Providing training grants;
• Prohibiting future open dumping and requiring the conversion of existing open dumps to
suitable facilities;
• Assuring that hazardous waste practices are conducted in a manner that protects human
health and the environment;
• Requiring that hazardous wastes are properly managed in the first instance thereby
reducing the need for corrective action in the future;
• Minimizing the generation of hazardous waste;
• Establishing a Federal State partnership to implement the Act;
• Promulgating guidelines for solid waste collection, transport, separation, recovery, and
disposal systems;
• Promoting research and development programs;
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• Promoting demonstration projects; and
• Establishing a cooperative effort among federal, state, and private enterprise in order to
recover valuable materials and energy from solid waste.
BASIC ELEMENTS
The RCRA is divided into nine main subsections (Subtitles A through I) which are implemented
through the Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 (40 CFR) parts 240 through 300. The subtitles
to cover the following subjects:
Subtitle Subjects
A General provisions including objectives and definitions
B Authorization and structure of the agencies administering the law
C Hazardous waste management
D State and regional solid waste plans
E Resource recovery
F Federal responsibilities for compliance with the law
G Miscellaneous provisions including citizen suits and imminent hazards
H Research and development
I Underground storage tanks
1.1.4 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
In 1980, Congress enacted the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act, usually referred to as “CERCLA” or "Superfund". Extensive amendments to
CERCLA were enacted in 1986 (Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act or "SARA").
CERCLA/SARA activities are typically funded out of a special "Superfund" trust fund, in lieu of
general revenues which provide funding for most other Federal environmental programs. The
fund was established by enacting special industry taxes.
PURPOSE
The scope of CERCLA/SARA is far broader than any other Federal environmental statutes.
CERCLA/SARA covers all environmental media: air, surface water, groundwater, soil, and bio-
hazards. CERCLAS/SARA provides for a Federal response to uncontrolled releases of hazardous
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substances from a vessel or any offshore or onshore facility and can cover any type of industrial,
commercial, or non-commercial facility, even if there are other regulations affecting the facility.
CERCLA/SARA vests the response authority with the President. The President, by Executive
Order 12580 issued on January 23, 1987, delegated the overall lead responsibility for
implementing CERCLA/SARA to the EPA. The Coast Guard was delegated the responsibility
for emergency response actions in the coastal zone, Great Lakes, and harbors. The Department
of Defense was made responsible for uncontrolled or unpermitted environmental releases of
hazardous substances from its vessels and facilities, including defense installations and bases
throughout the country. Evacuation and relocation responsibilities were delegated to the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
BASIC ELEMENTS
Title I: Hazardous Substances Releases, Liability, Compensation
Defines the reporting, cleanup, and response requirements for both past hazardous substance
sites and those where there is a current unpermitted release or a threat of an unpermitted release
into the environment of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminent. This Title also defines
the liabilities of a potentially responsible party.
Title II: Hazardous Substance Response Revenue Act of 1980
Establishes the taxing authority under which the initial trust fund was established.
Title III: Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know
Established a new law, which requires establishment of State Emergency Response
Commissions, Regional Emergency Planning Districts, and Local Emergency Planning
Committees. It also requires that facilities that utilize certain chemicals participate in the
emergency response local planning effort, including the identification of chemicals stored on site
and their locations. Furthermore, this Title establishes requirements for notifying the public when
releases of certain chemical substances occur and, under certain conditions for toxic chemical
releases, and an annual report of the total amount of toxic chemicals released. The above
information is usually available to the public upon request.
Title IV: Radon Gas and Indoor Air Quality Research
Establishes a research program on radon gas and indoor air quality to gather data and
information and coordinate Federal, State and local and private development efforts relating to
the improvement of indoor air quality.
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Title V: Amendments to the Internal Revenue Code of 1986
Establishes the funding source for the extension of CERCLA, as enacted by SARA, and a
Leaking Underground Storage Tank Trust Fund and its revenue sources.
CERCLA/SARA Liability Of Responsible Parties And Cost Recovery
CERCLA/SARA authorizes EPA to draw on two types of resources to pay for waste site
remediation: The Federal trust fund (Superfund), and responsible parties (RPs). CERCLA/SARA
states that RPs may be under §107(d)(3) of CERCLA/SARA, any person who is liable for a
release or threat of release of a hazardous substance that fails to properly provide for the removal
or remedial action upon order of the President (or authorized representative), without sufficient
cause, may be held liable for punitive damages in an amount up to three times the amount of the
cost incurred for the site cleanup. These punitive damages are in addition to the other liabilities
the RP may incur under CERCLA/SARA.
These liability provisions mandate that CERCLA/SARA liabilities be:
• Retroactive, RPs are liable for acts or omissions occurring well before the date of

CERCLA’s enactment.

• Strict, it is irrelevant that a hazardous waste generator selected a licensed hauler to take
waste to a licensed landfill, even under the conditions that all legal requirements at the
time were fully met and/or that the parties used all due care;
• Jointly and several, one party out of many may be held liable for more than his/her share
under fair allocations and may in fact be held liable for the entire cleanup cost.
Title III of SARA will be discussed further in the following subsection.
1.1.4.1 Emergency Planning And Community Right-To-Know Act (Title III of SARA)
When CERCLA was amended in 1986 by SARA, there were three “Titles” of SARA that did not
directly amend the statutory provisions of CERCLA; that is, they were newly created sections
that were added to CERCLA by Congress over the 19 months that SARA was debated. One of
these, Title III, is called the Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act.
Nothing in this new Act supersedes or amends the reporting requirements under CERCLA. This
new Act builds upon CERCLA reporting requirements and provides a new Federal/State/local
infrastructure to ensure that the response to reported releases may be better organized and would-
be-disasters can be better headed off. This Act required the establishment of State Emergency
Response Commissions, Emergency Planning Districts, and Local Emergency Planning
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Committees; and establishes the responsibility of each in creating and implementing the
comprehensive emergency response plan required under §303.
PURPOSE
Enactment of this law was prompted by such disastrous chemical release incidents as in Institute,
West Virginia and Bhopal, India.
According to the Congressional Record, “[Title III] will be critical to communities in alerting
them to the dangerous chemicals present in their communities, and in laying the foundation for
effective emergency response management. The right-to-know means public information about
what hazardous substances are being stored and released into the environment in our
communities. It means planning for emergency releases before they happen. It means that our
citizens and our emergency response personnel will be safer and better prepared for the threats
from chemical releases. It means that this nation will not tolerate Bhopal or Chernopyl-type
tragedies”.
BASIC ELEMENTS
Subtitle A – Emergency Planning and Notification
Subtitle B – Reporting Requirements
Subtitle C – General Provisions
1.1.5 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) was enacted by Congress in
1947 to regulate the formulation and use of pesticides in the United States. A pesticide is defined
as any substance intended to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate any pests (broadly including
both plants and animals). The original Act was amended in 1972, 1975, 1978, 1980, and recently
reauthorized in September, 1988. The 1972 amendment (Federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act, or FEPCA) was essentially a complete rewriting of the law.
PURPOSE
Prior to 1970 the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) enforced FIFRA and was
mainly concerned with the registration and labeling of pesticides. In 1970, the EPA was created
and inherited the Pesticide Division from the USDA. As a result of the 1972 amendments to
FIFRA, health and the environment became the main enforcement issues.
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BASIC ELEMENTS
The key elements of FIFRA deal with the registration of pesticides and enforcement of the Act.
They mainly apply to manufacturers, formulators, and distributors of pesticide. Regulations on
the proper use, storage, and disposal of pesticides andpesticide containers may apply to all
facilities.
Key regulatory requirements under FIFRA are:
• Registration
• Classification of Pesticides
• Cancellation and Suspension Orders
• Protection of Trade Secrets
• Imports and Exports
• Storage and Disposal
• Pre-Disposal Procedures for Pesticides
• Disposal Procedures for Pesticides
• Disposal Procedures for Pesticide Containers and Residues
• Experimental Use Permits
• Pesticides Regulated Under Other Federal Statutes
• Disposal Procedures for Cancelled or Suspended Pesticides
• Storage Procedures for Pesticides and Pesticide Containers
• Disposal of Pesticides and Pesticide Containers
1.1.6 Medical Waste Tracking Act
Recent public health concerns over the increasingly frequent appearance of medical wastes on
public beaches and in the environment in general prompted Congress two amend RCRA
(Subtitle J) through enactment of the Medical Waste Tracking Act of 1988. Regulations enacting
the Medical Waste Tracking Act are promulgated in 40 CFR 259 (Standards for the Tracking
and Management of Medical Waste) and are administered by the U.S. EPA.
PURPOSE
The 40 CFR 259 regulations established a two-year demonstration program in 1991 for tracking
medical wastes, from generation to ultimate disposal.
BASIC ELEMENTS
Medical wastes are defined as "… Any solid waste which is generated in the diagnosis,
treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals, in research pertaining thereto, or in the
10

production or testing of biologicals….”. Specific types of wastes regulated in the tracking
program include:
• Cultures and stocks of infectious agents and associated biologicals;
• Human pathological wastes, including tissues, organs, and body fluids;
• Human blood and blood products;
• All used sharp implements such as needles and scalpels, and certain other glassware
items;
• Contaminated animal carcasses, body parts, and bedding of animals exposed to infectious
agents in research;
• Wastes from patients isolated with highly communicable diseases, or isolated animals
known to be infected with highly communicable diseases; and
• Unused but discarded sharps, including hypodermic needles, suture needles, syringes, and
scalpel blades.
The demonstration program includes specific requirements for segregating, packaging, labeling,
marketing and storing medical wastes before they are shipped for disposal.
The medical waste tracking and management system is fundamentally similar to RCRA’s
existing system for hazardous waste tracking and management. The medical waste demonstration
system utilizes "Medical Waste Tracking Form”, with "comeback" copies returned to the
generator from the disposer, and custody information is required from the generator, transporter,
and the disposer.
1.1.7 Safe Drinking Water Act
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was passed in 1974 to amend the earlier Public Health
Service Act. The SDWA was subsequently amended in 1977, 1979, 1980, and 1986. The current,
1986 amendments are codified is public law 99 – 339.
PURPOSE
The purpose of the SDWA is to ensure the safety of public drinking water supplies. It extends to
protection of underground sources (aquifers), through various means, including controls on the
use of injection wells for the disposal of wastes. The 1986 amendments significantly increase the
regulatory importance of the SDWA, reflecting the increasing public and political awareness of
drinking water contamination issues.
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BASIC ELEMENTS
Although many objective elements of the SDWA exist in parallel in the CWA, the SDWA is a
separate regulatory program. This program provides for the following basic activities:
• EPA promulgation of National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs) and
parallel Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (see LG's) for 83 contaminants, by June,
1989;
• EPA review and updating of the original list of 83 contaminants (followed by
promulgation of supplemental NPDWRs and MCLGs, as necessary) every three years;
• EPA promulgation of National Secondary Drinking Water (SDWRs);
• EPA promulgation of regulations requiring specific water treatment techniques (filtration
and disinfection), depending on the water source and other factors; and,
• Provisions to allow program delegation to the States.
In addition, the 1986 amendments included assorted provisions to:
• Prevent the use of lead in water distribution systems,
• Control the use of underground injection wells,
• Recognize and protect "sole-source" aquifers, and
• Develop wellhead potential programs.
1.1.8 Toxic Substance Control Act
In the late 1960s, national concern began to arise over the proliferation of toxic chemicals and
other hazardous substances. Thousands of carcinogenic (cancer-causing), teratogenic (birth
defect-causing), and mutagenic (genetic-damaging) substances were already present in the
environment, an estimated 2 million chemical compounds have been identified, and thousands of
new substances were being developed every year.
PURPOSE
Existing laws, such as the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act, regulate chemical substances only when they are released to the environment.
Congress recognized the need for a law to require testing and controls of toxic chemicals having
potential adverse health or environmental effects before their production phase; and hence,
passed the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA, PL 94-469) in 1976.
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TSCA gives that EPA authority to (1) require testing of both existing and new chemical
substances (including those propagated through genetic engineering) posing potential adverse
effects of public health or the environment; and (2) regulate them, where necessary. This
authority supplements §112 and §307, respectively, of the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act,
and also §6 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA).
In 1986, the Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (PL-99-519) was added to the TSCA as
Title II. This amendment established asbestos abatement programs in schools.
BASIC ELEMENTS
TSCA is composed of:
• Title I: Control of Toxic Substance (31 Sections); and
• Title II: Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response (14 Sections).
1.1.9 Hazardous Materials Transportation Act
Prior to 1970, the existing regulations pertaining to transportation of hazardous material
addressed only explosive or flammable material, and did not directly address the transport of
other categories of hazardous materials or waste. These early regulations were provided by
Chapter 7- Carriage of Explosives or Dangerous Substances, Title 46-Shipping.
In 1970, recognition was given to the need for comprehensive regulations governing the
transportation of hazardous materials. Section 1761 Public Law 91 – 48, enacted October 16,
1970 provided authority to the Department of Transportation (DOT) Secretary of Transportation
to establish facilities and technical staff for evaluation of hazards involved in hazard materials
transportation, a central reporting system for accidents, and preparation of recommendations
regarding transportation of hazardous materials. This led to the development of the
“Transportation Safety Act of 1974”, which was intended as an amendment to the existing
regulations.
Although the Transportation Safety Act of 1974 was not enacted as such, most of the provisions
set forth in the Transportation Safety Act were included in the Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act (HMTA), which was enacted on January 3, 1975.
HMTA repealed Section 1761 of Public Law 91-458 and replaced it with Chapter 27 Hazardous
Materials Transportation, which provided far broader and more specific authority to the
Secretary, and which tasked the Secretary to take all steps necessary to bring orders,
determinations, rules, and regulations into conformity with the purposes and provisions of
Chapter 27. HMTA gave authority to the Secretary of Transportation to designate such quantity
13

and form of materials by land, water, or air. Bulk shipments by water are excluded since these
are regulated by the United States Coast Guard.
PURPOSE
HMTA establishes the authority of the Secretary of Transportation to protect the Nation against
the risks to life and property which are inherent in the transportation of hazardous materials in
commerce. This was accomplished by amending the existing fragmented regulations covering
hazardous materials transportation (contained in titles for railroads, shipping, and transportation)
and enacting new legislation under transportation that provided the Secretary with the authority
to develop regulations governing the safety aspects of the packing, repacking, handling, labeling,
marking, placarding, and routing of hazardous materials, and the manufacture, fabrication,
marking, maintenance, reconditioning, repairing, or testing of packaging or containers in which
hazardous materials are transported.
HMTA also established the authority to develop criteria for handling hazardous materials
including personnel training, type and frequency of inspections, equipment to be used for control
of risks, specifications regarding equipment and facilities used in the handling and transport, and
the system of monitoring safety assurance procedures.
BASIC ELEMENTS
The Hazardous Material Regulations (49 CFR 171 to 195) implementing HMTA are contained
in Subchapter C of Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations and are administered by the
Materials Transportation Bureau of DOT. The following list provides a summary of the
regulations administered by DOT and provides citations of the sections which are of primary
concern.
• General Information, Regulations, and Definitions 49 CFR 171
o Section 171.15 Immediate notice of certain hazardous material incident
o Section 171.16 Detailed hazardous materials incident reports
o Section 171.17 Hazardous substances discharge notification
• Hazardous Materials Tables and Communications Regulations 49 CFR 172
o Subpart B - Hazardous materials table (descriptions, shipping names, class,
labeling)
o Subpart C - Shipping papers (hazardous waste manifest)
o Subpart D - Marking
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 Section 172.304 - Marking requirements
 Section 172.308 - Authorized abbreviations
 Section 172.312 Hazardous substances
o Subpart E – Labeling
o Subpart F – Placarding
• Shippers General Requirements for Shipments and Packaging 49 CFR 173
o Subpart A- General
 Section 173.2 - Classification of a material having more than one hazard
o Subpart B - Preparation of Hazardous Materials for Transportation
o Subpart C - Explosives and blasting agents; definition and preparation
o Subpart D - Flammable, Combustible, and Pyrophoric liquids; definitions and
preparation
o Subpart E – Flammable Solids, Oxidizers, and organic peroxides
o Subpart F - Corrosive Materials; definition and preparation
o Subpart G - Compressed gases; definition and preparation
o Subpart H - Poisonous materials, etiologic agents, and radioactive materials
o Subpart K - Other regulated material; ORM - A
o Subpart L - Other regulated material; ORM - B
o Subpart M - Other regulated material; ORM - C
o Subpart N - Other regulated material; ORM - D
o Subpart O - Other regulated material; ORM - E
• Carriage By Rail 49 CFR 174
• Carriage By Aircraft 49 CFR 175
• Carriage By Vessel 49 CFR 176
• Carriage By Public Highway 49 CFR 177
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• Shipping Container Specifications 40 CFR 178
• Specifications For Tank Cars 40 CFR 179
REVISIONS
In 1990, the Department of Transportation promulgated a comprehensive revision of the hazard
communication and packaging requirements of the Hazardous Materials Regulations. These
regulations amend 40 CFR 107 and 171 through 179. The changes make the regulations more
consistent with the international United Nations standards and approach to hazardous material
transportation.
A key feature of the revised regulations is the introduction of performance oriented packaging
standard in accordance with the recommendations adopted by the United Nation's Committee on
the Transport of Dangerous Goods.
Besides establishing performance oriented packaging criteria, the revised regulations include;
• Consolidating hazardous materials tables into a single table;
• Eliminating approximately 100 packaging specifications;
• Replacing US measurement units with standard international units;
• Using class names, descriptions, and definitions based on UN recommendations;
• Using packaging group, vapor pressure and chemical compatibility as the basis for
packaging requirements;
• Requiring vibration test for non-bulk packaging;
• Requiring minimum thicknesses for reuse of plastic and metal drums;
• Tightening packaging provisions for materials that are poisonous by inhalation;
• Establishing criteria for defining gases that are poisonous by inhalation; and,
• Replacing 100 DOT non-bulk packaging standards with 20 U.N. standards.
Compliance dates for various segments of the new Hazardous Materials Regulations were:
• October 1, 1996 for the continued use of packaging authorized by September 30,
1991;
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• October 1, 1994 for the continued use of packaging made obsolete by the new
regulations; and,
• October 1, 1993 for all other provisions.
1.1.10 Occupational Safety And Health Act
In reaction to significant loss of life and money resulting from job site injuries, the United States
Congress enacted the Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970 (OSH Act). The OSH Act was
designed to achieve the goal of "assuring so far as possible every working man and woman in the
Nation safe and healthy working conditions” (29 USC 651(b)) and is administered by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
The OSH Act applies to 5.9 million employers and 88.7 million employees. The four (4)
categories of people not covered under the Act are listed below. Almost all other workers,
including consulting engineers and their employees, are covered.
• Self - employed persons;
• Farms at which only immediate members of farm employer’s family are employed;
• Workers covered by other legislations;
• State and local government employees.
OSHA’s ultimate goal is to promote health and safety in the work place. This strategy includes:
• Education and consultation;
• Civil citations;
• Criminal prosecution; and,
• State enforcement activities.
PURPOSE
OSHA established a National policy in the United States that is summed up in the Act’s “General
Duty Clause” (29 USC 654) which states that each employer:
1) “Shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment
which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or
serious physical harm to his employees;
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2) Shall comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this
Act.
Also that each employee shall comply with occupational safety and health standards and all
rules, regulations, and orders, issued pursuant to this Act which are applicable to his own actions
and conduct.”
OSHA has the authority to promulgate national health and safety standards through its
administrative rule making process, 29 USC §655. Standards are specific to an industry or
particular work place environment. OSHA has two standing advisory committees:
• National Advisory Committee on Occupational Safety and Health
• Advisory Committee on Construction Safety and Health
In addition, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) makes
recommendations for standards, conducts research, and provides technical assistance to OSHA.
NIOSH may require employers to:
• Measure and report employee exposures to potentially hazardous materials;
• Provide medical examinations and tests to determine incidence of occupational illness
among employers.
BASIC ELEMENTS
OSHA requirements are published in the following two standards:
• 29 CFR Parts 1900 to 1910: Occupational Safety and Health Standards;
• 29 CFR Part 1926: Construction Standards
The following elements of 29 CFR 1910 are directly applicable to hazardous waste site work:
• Subpart C: General Safety and Health Provisions
• Subpart D: Walking and Working Surfaces
• Subpart E: Means of Egress
• Subpart H: Powered Platforms, Manlifts and Vehicle Mounted Work Platforms
• Subpart G: Occupational Health and Environmental Control, Ventilation, Noise,
Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation
• Subpart H: Hazardous Materials
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• Subpart I; Personal Protection
• Subpart J: General Environmental Controls
• Subpart K: Medical and First Aid
• Subpart L: Fire Protection
• Subpart M: Compressed Gas and Compressed Air Equipment
• Subpart N: Materials Handling and Storage
• Subpart O: Machinery and Machine Guarding
• Subpart P: Hand and Portable Powered Tools
• Subpart Q: Welding, Cutting, and Brazing
• Subpart R: Special Industries
• Subpart S: Electrical
• Subpart T: Commercial Diving Operations
• Subpart Z: Occupational Health and Environmental Controls
1.1.10.1 Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) Standard
In response to the increasing worker population involved with hazardous waste site operations,
OSHA promulgated HAZWOPER regulations in 1986. These regulations apply to workers at:
1) CERCLA (Superfund) or other Federally funded hazardous waste sites;
2) State or locally funded or voluntary cleanup of hazardous waste sites conducted at the
direction of or recognized by State or regulatory agency;
3) Corrective actions at RECRA facilities;
4) Operations involving hazardous waste at RECRA facilities;
5) Emergency response operations involving hazardous waste/substances.
PURPOSE
The purpose of the HAZWOPER Standard is to provide regulations that are directly applicable to
hazardous waste and selected hazardous material containing sites.
BASIC ELEMENTS
The general requirements of HAZWOPER are with their appropriate paragraphs noted:
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1) Safety and health program (b)
2) Site characterization and analysis (c)
3) Site control (d)
4) Training (e)
5) Medical surveillance (f)
6) Engineering controls, work practices, and personal protective equipment (g)
7) Monitoring (h)
8) Informational programs (i)
9) Material handling (j)
10) Decontamination (k)
11) Emergency response at uncontrolled hazardous waste sites (l)
12) Illumination (m)
13) Sanitation (n)
14) New technology programs (o)
15) Certain operations conducted under RECRA (p)
16) Emergency response to releases by employees not previously covered (q)
1.1.10.2 Hazard Communication Standard
OSHA Hazard Communication Standard was first promulgated in 1983, and is printed in 29 CFR
Part 1910.1200. The Standard was developed to inform workers exposed to hazardous chemicals
of the risks associated with those chemicals. The purpose of the Standard is to ensure that:
• The hazards of all chemicals produced or imported are evaluated, and
• Information concerning chemical hazards is transmitted to employers and
employees.
Hazard information must be transmitted from manufacturers to employers via material safety
data and container labels. This information must be transmitted from employers to employees by
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means of comprehensive hazard communication programs which include material safety data
sheets (MSDS), container labels, and employee information and training programs.
PURPOSE
The Federal Hazard Communication standard is designed to comprehensively address the issue
of evaluating and communicating hazards.
BASIC ELEMENTS
The Hazard Communication Standard contains several basic requirements designed to protect the
health and safety of employees. Not all these requirements must be met by all employers. For
example, chemical manufacturers must comply with most of the hazard communicating
requirements while employers having operations where hazardous chemicals are only handled in
sealed containers must comply with only four requirements.
The basic requirements of the Hazard Communication Standard are:
• Determine Hazards
Evaluate chemicals produced in or imported into the U.S. to determine if those chemicals
are hazardous. Consider available scientific evidence concerning such hazards and
document the procedures used to determine the hazards of each chemical.
• Compose Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Obtain or develop a material safety data sheet for each hazardous chemical. The MSDS
must include information which reflects the scientific evidence used in making the hazard
determination and must be updated within three months of learning significant
information about the hazards of a chemical or ways to protect against the hazards.
• Provide Customers with MSDS and Warning Labels
Provide customers with an MSDS and for each hazardous chemical they purchase with
the initial shipment and with the first shipment after any update of the information
contained in the MSDS. Place warning labels on each container of hazardous chemicals
leaving the workplace which includes the identity of the chemical, appropriate hazard
warnings, and the name and address of the manufacturer, importer or responsible party.
• Have a MSDS Available for Every Hazardous Chemical
Keep a MSDS on file for every hazardous chemical present or used in the workplace.
Keep MSDSs readily accessible during each work shift and inform employees how to
obtain MSDSs. If employees travel between work places during a work shift, the MSDSs
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may be kept at a central location at the primary work place as long as information is
immediately available in the event of an emergency.
• Label Containers
Ensure that all containers of hazardous chemicals in the work place are clearly labeled
with the identity of the hazardous chemical and appropriate hazard warnings. Do not
remove or deface labels on incoming containers of hazardous chemicals.
• Inform and Train Employees
Inform all employees before their initial assignment or whenever a new hazard is
introduced into their work area of the requirements of the standard, operations in their
work area where hazardous chemicals are present, and the location and availability of the
written Hazard Communication Program.
Train employees how to identify and protect themselves from chemical hazards in the
work area, how to recognize the physical and health hazards of chemicals in their work
area, and details of how to obtain and use the employer’s written hazard communication
program and appropriate hazard information.
• Prepare a Written Hazard Communication Program
Develop, implement, and maintain a written hazard communication program for each
work place that describes how material safety data sheet, labeling, and employee
information and training requirements will be met. The written program must also
include a list of hazardous chemicals present in the work place and the methods which
will be used to inform employees of the hazards associated with performing non-routine
tasks and chemicals present in unlabeled pipes.
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SECTION II. HAZARD RECOGNITION, EVALUATION, &
CONTROL
SECTION OBJECTIVES
After reading this section, the attendee will have an increased knowledge of:
• Different hazards associated with handling dangerous materials and/or contaminated site
operations;
• The components and elements of the Workplace Hazard Response Model;
• The types of hazards to personnel may be exposed to including chemical, safety,

biological, physical, radiation, confined space and medical hazards;

• The physical properties of chemicals that help to identify and evaluate hazards present
during site investigations and operations.
SECTION OUTLINE
The following section presents an overview of hazard recognition, evaluation and control, to
include;
• Recognition, evaluation, and control;
• Chemical hazards;
• Physical hazards including kinetic/mechanical, electrical, and acoustic;
• Biological hazards;
• Radiation hazards;
• Confined space hazards; and
• Medical hazards including heat stress, cold exposure, medical surveillance, medical
emergencies and first aid.
What do you consider the most serious hazard that you might encounter?
It is probably the hazard that you fail to recognize!
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A typical worksite can be one where numerous hazardous situations are present. These situations
include "typical" physical hazards, such as poor footing, through those where hazardous
materials/waste is present, or has escaped into the environment. Hundreds of thousands of
different chemicals are produced, stored, transported, and used annually. Contaminated site
situations vary considerably and may require investigation, immediate control measures
(emergency) or long-term cleanup activities (remedial action) to restore acceptable conditions.
Contaminated sites typically pose hazardous environments for workers including risk of
exposure to chemical, physical, radiological, and biological hazards.
Activities that are required in order to remain safe while working at contaminated or hazardous
substance/waste containing sites can be divided into five broad, interacting elements:
• Recognition: identification of the situation or substance involved and the characteristics
which determine its degree of hazard;
• Evaluation: determination of impact or risk the hazardous situation or substance poses to
the worker, or public health;
• Control: methods to eliminate or reduce the health and safety risk present;
• Information: knowledge gained about the conditions or circumstances particular to a
work site;
• Safety: protection of site personnel from harm.
These elements make up a system - an orderly arrangement of components that interact to
accomplish a task. In contaminated or hazardous substance/waste containing site work, the task
is to prevent or reduce any negative impact on the health of workers in the general public. To
achieve this goal contaminated site personnel undertake a variety of activities; for example.
developing health and safety plans (HASP), visual observations, air monitoring, air sampling,
erecting fences, recordkeeping, evaluation, etc. These activities are all related and what occurs in
one affects or is affected by the others.
Recognition
Recognizing the type and degree of the hazard present is usually one of the first steps when
determining the level of occupational risk at a worksite. This initial step is required in
accordance with federal occupational safety regulations. The hazardous situation involved must
be identified. Then the physical and chemical properties which may make it hazardous, or
capable of causing harm, are determined. These inherent properties are used, on a preliminary
basis, to predict the behavior and anticipated problems associated with site activities.
Hazard recognition may be easy, for example, unguarded moving parts or a transportation
placard on a tanker. At a contaminated site containing hundreds of different chemicals, complete
hazard identification is more difficult. The element of recognition, therefore, involves use of all
available information (e.g. sampling results, historical data, visual observation, instruments,
package labels, shipping manifests, existing documentation, witnesses, and other sources) to
identify the substances.
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It is important to recognize hazards when working around hazardous material containers and
drums. The recognition process should include a comprehensive characterization of drums and
containers including radioactivity, leaking/deteriorated, bulging, and explosive/shock sensitive
issues. Important information can be obtained by simply looking at a container. For instance, if
the drum head configuration is "open-head” (removable lid) then the drum most likely contains a
solid or semi-solid material, while drums with bungs are designed to contain liquids. The
presence of a liner may indicate that the material contained within is corrosive. The type of
material the container is made from may also indicate the class of chemical. The presence of a
crystalline material at the neck or opening of any container may indicate that the material inside
is explosive or shock sensitive. All containers suspected of containing shock sensitive or
explosive materials should be treated as containing such material. Bulging drums indicate that
the internal pressure may have increased and the material inside may be volatile and flammable.
A worksite may involve more than the presence of a hazardous material. It may contain a
situation in which the normal safeguards associated with the materials are compromised, thus
creating the chance of undesirable effects. For instance, gasoline can do harm because it's vapors
can ignite and explode. However, the usual safety techniques for handling gasoline should
prevent this from happening. Problems caused by the release of gasoline into the environment
can be anticipated based on its chemical and physical properties. The harm that gasoline will do
if released at a site, however, depends on site-specific conditions.
A multitude of substances exhibit one or more characteristics of flammability, radioactivity,
corrosiveness, toxicity, or other properties which classify them as hazardous. For any particular
hazardous category, the degree of hazard varies depending on the substance. The degree of
hazard is a relative measure of how hazardous a substance is. For instance, the Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) concentration of butyl acetate in air is 1,700 parts per
million (ppm); the IDLH for sulfur dioxide is 100 ppm. Sulfur dioxide, therefore, is much more
acutely toxic (has a higher degree of hazard) when inhaled at lower than IDLH concentrations
than butyl acetate. Vapors from butyl acetate, however, have a higher degree of explosive hazard
than sulfur dioxide vapors which are not explosive.
Once the substance has been identified, its hazardous properties and its degree of hazard can be
determined using various databases or reference materials. Although appropriate references give
information about the substances physical/chemical properties and may give indications of its
environmental behavior, additional data is required. Frequently, monitoring and sampling data is
used to: (1) identify substances, (2) determine concentrations, (3) confirm dispersion patterns,
and (4) verify the presence of material.
Evaluation
Recognition provides basic data about the likely presence of a hazardous situation or substance.
Evaluation is defined as determining its effects, or potential impact, onsite worker, or public
health. A hazardous situation/substance is a threat due to its physical and/or chemical
characteristics. Its actual impact however, depends on the location of the situation/substance, the
pathways of distribution, weather, and other site-specific conditions, such as topography,
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geochemistry, etc. Two measures of impact are:
1) The potential for harm from a health and safety risk, and
2) The adverse effects that have occurred.
Risk is the chance of harm being done, a measure of the potential impact or effect. The presence
of a hazardous substance is a risk, but if the material is under control, the risk is low; if
uncontrolled, the risk increases. For harm to be done, a critical receptor must be exposed to the
hazardous material, as may happen when a site worker handles the material or people live in the
area affected by the material. Chlorine gas, for instance, is highly toxic and represents a risk. If
chlorine gas is released during site operations, the risk to site workers is very great. If the
substance were carbon dioxide rather than chlorine, the worker’s risk would be substantially less,
since carbon dioxide is much less toxic than chlorine.
Evaluating risk in these two examples is relatively simple. Much more complex are those
episodes where many compounds are involved and a higher degree of uncertainty exists
regarding their behavior in the environment and their contact with and effects on receptors.
The completeness of information must also be assessed. Will a detailed site walk-over with
monitoring of airborne vapors/dusts/mists provide more comprehensive information on what the
material is, where it is, how it moves through the environment, what it will contact, and what is
the associated risk? To evaluate completely the effects of a contaminated site, all substances
must be identified, their dispersion pathways established, and for toxic chemicals, concentrations
determined. Of primary importance to site workers is the application of this evaluation to the
actual site work to be accomplished.
Risk is assessed based on exposure (or potential exposure) to site personnel and determinations
made relative to the institution of administrative control methods such as; health and safety
plans, standard safety procedures, and the use of engineered controls such as; machine guarding
and/or personal protective equipment.
Control
Control is a method (or methods) which prevents or reduces the risk of occupational exposure to
site hazards. Preliminary control actions are instituted as rapidly as possible. As additional
information is developed through recognition and evaluation, initial control actions are modified
or others instituted. Control generally includes two primary methods:
• Administrative Controls, including health and safety planning, standard safety operating
procedures, and
• Engineered Controls, including machine guarding, ventilation, and the use of personal
protective equipment.
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Information
An integral part of safe site work is information and information dissemination. All site safety
activities evolve as additional information is subsequentially obtained. Information is a support
and input element to recognition, evaluation, and control and provides data for decision-making.
Information typically comes from three sources:
1) Intelligence: Information obtained from existing records or documentation, placards,
labels, signs, special configuration of containers, visual observations, technical reports,
and others.
2) Direct-reading instruments: Information is obtained from on-site, real-time instruments.
3) Sampling: Information obtained from collecting representative portions of appropriate
media or material and subsequent laboratory analysis.
Information acquisition, analysis, and decision-making are interactive processes that define the
extent of the problem and the safe response to the defined problem. For sight safety activities to
be effective, an information base must be established which is accurate, valid, and timely.
Throughout site work decisions are based on the receipt and evaluation of good information and
the development of a good knowledge base concerning health-related risk.
Safety
All worksite activities pose varying dangers to site personnel. An important consideration in all
site activities is to protect the health and safety of site personnel. To do this requires that the
chemical and physical hazards associated with each operation be assessed and methods
implemented to prevent or reduce harm to site personnel. Safety considerations are an input to
every activity and are and outcome of each contaminated site activity. For example, an outcome
of identifying a specific chemical may be changes in safety requirements. Each worksite should,
or must (depending on site conditions and location) have an effective health and safety program
including; appropriate safety equipment, standardized safety procedures, an active training
program, medical surveillance, and atmosphere monitoring.
Relationship of Elements
Recognition, evaluation, control, information, and safety describe the five elements required for
safe site work. Each element includes a variety of activities or operations. These elements are not
necessarily sequential steps for work site activities. In some situations, control measures can start
before the substances are completely identified. In others, a more thorough evaluation of a
hazardous material’s presence or characteristic is required before effective control actions can be
determined.
Each element and activity are interrelated, for example: A supplied air respirator (control, safety)
is required to sample drums of unknown liquids (recognition, evaluation). Once determined that
the drums contain no hazardous chemicals (information), the supplied air respirator is no longer
required (evaluation, safety) to continue handling the drums. This knowledge (information) also
changes the safety requirements for adjacent site operations (evaluation, safety).
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The response system is a concept explaining, in general terms, the safety processes involved in
determining health and safety risks for site workers. All site work requires the performance
elements of recognizing, evaluating, and controlling hazards in order to perform site operations
safely. To support these, information is needed and site personnel safety must be considered.
2.1 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
What is a “chemical?”
• A “chemical” means any element, chemical compound or mixture of elements and/or
compounds.
What is a “hazardous chemical?”
• A “hazardous chemical” is any chemical that can pose a physical hazard or a health hazard.
Chemicals are usually broken down into two types of hazards: those that pose a physical hazard,
and those that pose a health hazard. Chemical hazards may be classified according to one of four
general groups. These groups are toxic, fire/explosion, corrosive, and reactive. A material may
also elicit more than one chemical hazard. For example, toxic and flammable vapors can be
released from many volatile liquids. Hazardous atmospheres may result from the
physical/chemical properties of the material or from chemical reactivity with other materials to
which it is exposed.
2.1.1 Toxic Hazards
Toxic materials cause local or systemic detrimental effects in an organism. Types

of toxic hazards are categorized by the physiological effect they have on the

organism. A material may induce more than one physiological response such as:

the asphyxiation, irritation/allergic sensitization, systemic poisoning,

mutagenesis, teratogenesis, carcinogenesis and/or death.

The likelihood that any of these effects will be experienced by an organism depends on: (1) the

inherent toxicity of the material; (2) the concentration and duration (acute or chronic) of

exposure and; (3) the route of exposure (ingestion, inhalation, dermal).

2.1.2 Fire and Explosion Hazards
Combustibility is the ability of the material to act as a fuel. Materials that
can be readily ignited and sustain a fire are considered flammable. Fuel that
will not sustain fire without a continued ignition source is called
combustible. Three components are required for combustion to occur: fuel,
oxygen, and activation energy (heat). The concentration of fuel and oxygen must be proportioned
correctly to allow ignition and to maintain the burning process. Combustion is a chemical
reaction that requires heat to proceed.
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That heat is either supplied by an ignition source or is maintained by the combustion. The
relationship of these three components is illustrated by the fire triangle (Figure 1). Most fires can
be extinguished by removing one of the three components. For example, water applied to a fire
removes the heat, thereby extinguishing the fire. When a flammable material, is in the presence
of oxygen, generates enough heat to self-ignite and combust, spontaneous combustion occurs.
The fuel is the material that is oxidized. Since the fuel becomes chemically charged by the
oxidizing process it is a reducing agent. This makes the second side of the tetrahedron. Fuels can
be anything from elements (carbon, hydrogen, magnesium) to compounds (wood, paper,
gasoline).
FIGURE 1

FIRE TRIANGLE

Some mixtures of reducing agents and oxidizing agents remain stable under certain conditions.
However, when there is some activation energy, a chain reaction is started, which causes
combustion. Triggers to this chemical reaction can be as simple as exposing the combination to
light. Once the chain reaction begins, extinguishment entails interrupting the reaction.
Scientists have known for many years that certain chemicals act as excellent extinguishing
agents. However, they were at a loss to explain how these chemicals actually accomplished
extinguishment, given the fire triangle model. With the development of the tetrahedron model
(Figure 2) and the inclusion of the uninhibited chain reaction, a scientifically sound theory could
be postulated. With this as the basis, the extinguishing capabilities of the halons and certain dry
chemicals were possible.
While oxygen is the usual oxidizing agent during the combustion process, there are chemicals
that can burn without oxygen. For example, calcium and aluminum will burn in a nitrogen
atmosphere. Because of this possibility a fire tetrahedron can better explain "burning" then the
fire triangle. Therefore the fire tetrahedron contains an oxidizing agent that permits the fuel to
burn.
Another side of the tetrahedron represents temperature. The fact that temperature is used instead
of heat is deliberate. Temperature is the quantity of the disordered energy, which is what initiates
combustion. It is possible to have a high heat as indicated by a large reading of BTU and still not
have combustion. The temperature is therefore the key ingredient and the one that influences the
actions of the tetrahedron.
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FIGURE 2

Fire Tetrahedron

Flammability is the ability of the material (liquid, solid or gas) to generate enough concentration
of combustible vapors under "normal" atmospheric conditions to be ignited and produce a flame.
It is necessary to have a proper fuel-to-air ratio (expressed as a percentage of fuel in air) to allow
combustion. There is a range of fuel (flammable range) concentrations in air for each material
that is optimal for the ignition and the sustenance of combustion. The lowest concentration of
fuel in this range is the lower flammable limit (LFL). Concentrations less than the LFL are not
flammable because there is too little fuel - that is, the mixture is to "lean." The highest ratio that
is flammable is the upper flammable limit (UFL). Explosive gases/vapors exhibit an explosive
range, which is similar to the flammable range. The upper explosive limit (UEL) and lower
explosive limit (LEL) are similar to the UFL and LFL. Most reference books list either explosive
limits or flammable limits and treat them identically.
Concentrations greater than the UFL are not flammable because there is too much fuel displacing
the oxygen (resulting in too little oxygen). This mixture is too "rich". Fuel concentrations
between the LFL and UFL are optimal for starting and sustaining fire. Example: the LFL for
benzene is 1.3% (13,000 ppm), the UFL is 7.1% (71,000 ppm), thus the flammable range is 1.3%
to 7.1%.
A flammable material is considered highly combustible if it can burn at ambient temperatures
(Table 1). A combustible material is not necessarily flammable, because it may not easily ignite
or the ignition may not be maintained. Some pyrophoric materials will ignite at room
temperature in the presence of a gas or vapor or when a slight friction or shock is applied.
Note that the US Department of Transportation (DOT), the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and
the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) have established strict definitions for
flammability based on the flash point of material.
30

TABLE 1
FLAMMABLE COMPOUNDS AND ELEMENTS
Flammable Liquids Flammable Solids
Aldehydes Phosphorus
Ketones Magnesium dust
Amines Zirconium dust
Ethers Titanium dust
Aliphatic hydrocarbons Aluminum dust
Aromatic hydrocarbons Zinc dust
Alcohols
Nitroaliphatics
Pyrophoric Liquids Water-Reactive Flammable Solids
Organometallic compounds Potassium
Dimethyl zinc Sodium
Tributyl aluminum Lithium
An explosive is a substance that undergoes a very rapid chemical transformation producing large
amounts of gases and heat. The gases produced, for example, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and steam, due to the heat produced, rapidly expand at velocities
exceeding the speed of sound. This creates both a shockwave (high pressure wave front) and
noise.
A gas or vapor explosion is a very rapid, violent release of energy. If combustion is extremely
rapid, a large amount of kinetic energy, heat, and gaseous products are released. The major factor
contributing to the explosion is the confinement of a flammable material.
When vapors or gases cannot freely dissipate, they enter the combustion
reaction more rapidly. Confinement also increases the energy associated
with these molecules, which enhances the explosive process. Poorly
ventilated buildings, sewers, drums, and bulk liquid containers are examples
of places where potentially explosive atmospheres may exist.
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There are several types of explosive hazards:

• High or detonating: Chemical transformation occurs very rapidly with detonation rates
as high as 6000 m/second (21,120 feet/second). The rapidly expanding gas produces a
shockwave which may be followed by combustion.
• Primary high explosive: Detonating wave produced in an extremely short period of
time. May be detonated by shock, heat, or fiction. Examples are lead azide, Mercury
fulminate, and lead styphnate.
• Secondary high explosive: Generally needs a booster to cause them to detonate.
Relatively insensitive to shock, heat, or friction. Examples are tetryl cyclonite, dynamite,
and TNT.
• Low or deflagrating: Rate of deflagration up to 304 meters/second (1000 feet/second).
Generally combustion is followed by a shock wave. Examples are smokeless powder,
black powder, and solid rocket fuel.
The terms "high" or "low" does not indicate the explosion hazard (or power) but only the rate of
chemical transformation. Explosions can occur as a result of reactions between many chemicals
not ordinarily considered as explosives. Ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer, can explode under the
right conditions. Alkali metals and water explode, as will water and peroxide salts. Picric acid
and certain ether compounds become highly explosive with age. Gases, vapors, and finally
divided particulates, when confined, can also explode if an ignition source is present.
In summary, fires and explosions require fuel, air (oxygen), and an ignition source (heat). At a
worksite, the first two are not easily controlled. Consequently, while working on the site where a
fire hazard may be present, the concentration of combustible gases in air must be monitored, and
any potential ignition source must be kept out of the area.
The most dangerous flammable substances:
• Are easily ignited (e.g. pyrophorics).
• Require little oxygen to support combustion.
• Have low LFL/LEL and a wide flammable/explosive range.
Hazards related to fires and explosions cause:
• Physical destruction due to shock waves, heat, and flying objects (projectiles).
• Initiation of secondary fires or creation of flammable conditions.
• Release of toxic and corrosive compounds into the surrounding environment.
32

2.1.3 Corrosive Hazards
Corrosion is a process of material degradation. Upon contact, a corrosive
material may destroy body tissues, metals, plastics, and other materials.
Corrosivity is the ability of material to increase the hydrogen ion or hydronium
ion concentration of another material; it may have the potential to transfer
electron pairs to or from itself or another substance. A corrosive agent is the
reactive compound or element that produces a destructive chemical change in the material upon
which it is acting. Common corrosives are the halogens, acids, and bases (Table 2). Skin
irritation and burns are typical results when the body contacts an acidic or basic material.
The corrosiveness of acids and bases can be compared on the basis of their ability to dissociate
(form ions) in solution. Those that form the greatest number of hydrogen ions (H+
) are the
strongest acids, while those that form the most hydroxide ions (OH-
) are the strongest bases. The
measure of H+
concentration, in solution is called pH. Strong acids have a low pH (many H+
in
solution) while strong bases have a high pH (few H+
in solution; many OH-
in solution). The pH
scale ranges from 0 to 14 as follows:
< Increasing Acidity Neutral Increasing Basicity >
pH = 0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Measurements of pH are valuable because they can be quickly done on site, providing immediate
information on the corrosive hazard.
When dealing with corrosive materials in the field, it is imperative to determine:
• How toxic is a corrosive material? Is it an irritant or does it cause severe burns?
• What kind of structural damage does it do, and what other hazards occur? For example,
will it destroy containers holding other hazardous materials, releasing them into the
environment?
TABLE 2
CORROSIVES
HALOGENS
Bromine
Chlorine
Fluorine
Iodine
BASES (Caustics)
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide
ACIDS
Acetic Acid
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrofluoric acid
Nitric acid
Sulfuric acid
33

2.1.4 Chemical and Reactivity
A reactive material is one that undergoes a chemical reaction under certain
specified conditions. The term "reactive hazard" refers to a substance that
undergoes a violent or abnormal reaction in the presence of either water or
normal ambient atmospheric conditions. Among this type of hazard are the
pyrophoric liquids which will ignite in air at or below normal room temperature
in the absence of added heat, shock, or friction, and the water-reactive flammable solids which
will spontaneously combust upon contact with water (Table 3).
TABLE 3
HAZARDS DUE TO CHEMICAL REACTIONS (INCOMPATIBILITIES)
REACTANTS RESULT
Acid and Water Heat Generation
Hydrogen Sulphide and Calcium
Hypochlorite
Fire
Picric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide Explosion
Sulphuric Acid and Plastic Toxic Gas or Vapor Production
Acid and Metal Flammable Gas or Vapor Production
Chlorine and Ammonia
Formation of a Substance with Greater Toxicity
than the Reactants
Peroxides and Organics or
Liquid Oxygen and Petroleum Products
Pressurization of Closed Vessels
Formation of Shock or Friction Sensitive
Compounds Fire Extinguisher
Hydrochloric Acid and Chromium Solubilization of Toxic Substances
Sodium or Potassium Cyanide and Water or
Acid Vapor
Dispersal of Toxic Dusts and Mists
Ammonia and Acrylonitrile Violent Polymerization
A chemical reaction is the interaction of two or more substances, resulting in chemical changes.
Exothermic chemical reactions, which give off heat, can be the most dangerous. A separate source
of heat is required to maintain endothermic chemical reactions. Removing the heat source stops
the reaction.
34

Chemical reactions usually occur in one of the following ways:
• Combination A + B → AB
• Decomposition AB → A + B
• Single replacement A + BC → B+AC
• Double replacement AB + CD → AD + CD
The rate at which a chemical reaction occurs depends on various factors, such as the following:
• Surface area of reactants available at the reaction site (for example, a large chunk of coal is
combustible, but coal dust is explosive)
• Physical state of reactants - solid, liquid, or gas
• Concentration of reactants
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Presence of a catalyst
If two or more hazardous materials remain in contact indefinitely without reaction, they are
compatible. Incompatibility, however, does not necessarily indicate a hazard. For example, acids
and bases, both corrosive, react to form salts and waters, which may not be corrosive.
Many operations on waste or accident sites involve mixing or unavoidable contact between
different hazardous materials. It is important to know ahead of time if such materials are
compatible. If they are not, then any number of chemical reactions could occur. The results could
range from the formation of an innocuous gas to a violent explosion. Table 3 illustrates what
happens when some incompatible materials are combined.
The identity of unknown reactants must be determined by chemical analysis to establish
compatibility. On the basis of their properties, a chemist then should be able to anticipate any
chemical reactions resulting from mixing the reactants. Judging the compatibility of more than two
reactants is very difficult; analysis should be performed on a one-to-one bases.
Site personnel who must determine compatibles should refer to A Method for Determining the
Compatibility of Hazardous Wastes (EPA 600/2-80-076), published by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development. Final decisions about
compatibilities should only be made by an experienced chemist.
35

If materials are compatible they may be stored together in bulk tanks or transferred to tank trucks
for ultimate disposal. It is necessary, then, to establish the compatibility of the materials through
analysis prior to bulking them. Compatibility information is also very important in evaluating an
accident involving several different hazardous materials. The ultimate handling and treatment of
the materials may be partially based on such information.
2.1.5 Properties of Chemical Hazards
Chemical compounds possess inherent properties which determine the type and degree of the
hazard they represent. Evaluating risks of a contaminated site depends on understanding these
properties and their relationship to the environment.
The ability of a solid, liquid, gas or vapor to dissolve in a solvent is solubility. An insoluble
substance can be physically mixed or blended in a solvent for a short time but is unchanged when it
finally separates. The solubility of a substance is independent of its density or specific gravity.
The solubility of a material is important when determining its reactivity, dispersion, mitigation, and
treatment. Solubility can be given in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L).
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume, commonly expressed in grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cc). The density of water is 1 g/cc since 1 cc has a mass of 1 g.
Specific gravity (SpG) is the ratio of the density of a substance (at a given temperature) to the
density of water at the temperature of its maximum density (40C). Numerically, SpG is equal to
the density in g/cc, but is expressed as a pure number without units. If the SpG of a substance is
greater than 1 (the SpG of water), it will sink in water. The substance will float on water if its SpG
is less than 1. This is important when considering mitigation and treatment methods.
The density of a gas or vapor can be compared to the density of the ambient atmosphere. If the
density of a vapor or gas is greater than the ambient air, it will tend to settle to the lowest point. If
vapor density is close to air density or lower, the vapor will tend to disperse in the atmosphere.
Vapor density is given in relative terms similar to specific gravity. In settling, dense vapor creates
two hazards. First, if the vapor displaces enough air to reduce the atmospheric concentration of
oxygen below 16%, asphyxia may result. Second, if the vapor is toxic, then inhalation problems
predominate even if the atmosphere is not oxygen deficient. If a substance is explosive and very
dense, the explosive hazard may be close to the ground rather than at the breathing zone (normal
sampling heights).
The pressure exerted by a vapor against the sides of a closed container is called vapor pressure, and
it is temperature dependent. As temperature increases, so does the vapor pressure, thus, more
liquid evaporates or vaporizes. The lower the boiling point of the liquid, the greater the vapor
pressure it will exert at a given temperature. Values for vapor pressure are most often given as
millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) at a specific temperature.
36

The boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes to vapor. That is, the boiling point is
the temperature where the pressure of the liquid equals atmospheric pressure. The opposite change
in phases is the condensation point. Handbooks usually list temperatures as degrees Celsius (o
C) or
Fahrenheit (o
F). A major consideration with toxic substances is how they enter the body. With
high-boiling-point liquids, the most common entry is by body contact. With low-boiling-point
liquids, the inhalation route is the most common and serious.
The temperature at which a solid changes phase to a liquid is the melting point. This temperature
is also the freezing point, since a liquid can change phase to a solid. The proper terminology
depends on the direction of the phase change. If a substance has been transported at a temperature
that maintains a solid phase, then a change in temperature may cause the solid to melt. The
particular substance may exhibit totally different properties depending on phase. One phase could
be inert while the other highly reactive. Thus, it is imperative to recognize the possibility of a
substance changing phase due to changes in the ambient temperature.
The minimum temperature at which a substance produces enough flammable vapors to ignite is its
flash point. If the vapor does ignite, combustion can continue as long as the temperature remains
at or above the flash point. The relative flammability of a substance is based on its flash point. An
accepted relation between the two is:
FLAMMABILITY FLASH POINT
High < 37.7o
C (100o
F)
Moderate > 37.7o
C (100o
F) < 93.3o
C (200o
F)
Relatively inflammable > 93.3o
C (200o
F)
2.2 PHYSICAL HAZARDS
Safety is the condition of being secure from undergoing or causing injury, or loss. In this
definition, safety requires a twofold posture, offensive and defensive. The offensive posture
provides protection for actions one can control. The defensive posture is the awareness of factors
or situations others may create. Care must be taken so that actions to protect or reduce accident
potentials for one person do not set up conditions for subsequent accidents by others.
2.2.1 Kinetic/Mechanical
Generally referred to as “slip-trip-fall” type of injuries, the kinetic/mechanical category includes
"struck-by" injuries along with "striking" injuries.
37

Workers must walk cautiously that a site to avoid tripping. Orphaned sites usually are seldom
kept neat and tidy. Tidy. Train or other vehicle wrecks can produce debris that can increase the
possibility of tripping. Problems at a hazardous waste site and an accident scene can be
compounded by uneven terrain and mud, caused by rain or leaking chemicals.
Walking on drums is dangerous. Not only can they tip over, but they can
be so corroded that they cannot support a person's weight. If it is
absolutely necessary to walk over drums, place a piece of plywood over
several drums to serve as a platform. While this practice can be
dangerous it will distribute the walker's weight over several drums. It is
preferable to utilize a drum mover or grappler two-stage drums and make
them more accessible. Walking around heavy and mechanical equipment
poses risk for workers. Table 4 outlines methods for reducing this risk
TABLE 4
REDUCING INJURIES FROM MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trained personnel in proper operating procedures per regulations/standards, e.g. Lock-out/tag-out
Install adequate on-site roads, signs, lights, and devices
Ensure appropriate guards and engineering controls are installed on machinery
Use equipment is recommended by the manufacturer
At the start of each shift, inspect equipment and vehicles
Allow only essential people in the work area
Prohibit all loose hair or clothing at the worksite
Instruct operators and workers to immediately report all equipment abnormalities
have a signal person directed the backing and movement of equipment
Lower arm blades and buckets to the ground and set parking brakes before shutting off the engine
Implement an ongoing maintenance program
Store tools in a clean and secure area to prevent damage
Keep all heavy equipment in the contaminated areas until the job is done.
Completely decontaminate equipment before moving it to contaminated areas
2.2.2 Electrical
Electrical hazards can exist at accident sites because of downed power lines or improper use of electrical
equipment. The presence of underground electrical lines must be checked before any digging or
excavating. When using cranes or material handlers, care must be taken that the machinery does not come
in contact with any energized lines. They should be a 6.1 meter (20-foot) clearance between a crane and
electric power lines unless lines have been de--energized or an insulating barrier has been erected. Shock
is the primary hazard from electrical tools. Electrical shock may cause death or burns or falls that lead to
injury.
38

Ways for protecting personnel from shock are:
• Grounding equipment. Grounding drains current, due to a short-circuit, to earth. The ground
wire is the third wire on three-pronged plugs. Equipment can also be grounded by a separate wire
attached to the metal parts.
• Using double-insulated tools. These tools do not need to be grounded because they are: encased
by a nonconductive material which is shatterproof, or have a layer of insulating material isolating
the electrical components from a metal housing (use for more rugged design). This insulation is in
addition to that found in regular tools. Double-insulated tools are identified by writing on the tool
or by the symbol of a square within the square.
• Having overcurrent devices such as: (1) fuses, which interrupt current by melting a fusible
metal strip, or (2) circuit breakers, which operate by temperature change or magnetic difference.
Crane collapse into overhead power lines Some of the fallout
Overcurrent devices open the circuit current automatically if the current is high from accidental ground,
short circuit or overload. They should be selected based on type of equipment and capacity. A ground
fault circuit interrupter (GFC I) device can be used to protect personnel and equipment. This device
breaks a circuit when it detects low levels of the current leaking to ground. It is fast-acting to keep the
size of the current and its duration so low that it cannot produce serious injury. This device only operates
on line-to-ground fault currents and not on line-two-line contact. It is commonly used on construction
sites and in hospitals. Additionally, tools and flexible cords should be inspected for damage that could
lead to shock. For more detailed information check the National Electrical Code (National Fire
Protection Association [NFPA] Section 70.
2.2.3 Acoustic
Excessive acoustic energy can destroy the ability to hear and may also put stress and
other parts of the body, including the heart. There is no cure for most effects of noise,
therefore prevention is the only way to avoid health damage. The damage depends
mainly on the intensity and length of exposure. The frequency or pitch can also have
some affect and high-pitched sounds are more damaging than low-pitched ones.
Noise may tire out the inner ear, causing hearing loss. After a period of time off, hearing may be restored.
Under some circumstances the damage may become permanent because cells in the inner ear had been
39

destroyed and can never be replaced or repaired. Permanent damage can be caused by long-term exposure
to loud noise, or in some cases, I brief exposure to very loud noises (explosions, shock waves).
Although research on the effects of noise on other parts of the body is not complete, it appears that
excessive noise can quicken the pulse rate, increase blood pressure, and narrow blood vessels. Over a
long period of time, these may place and added burden on the hard.
Excessive noise may also put stress on other parts of the body by causing the abnormal secretion of
hormones and tensing of muscles. Workers exposed to noise sometimes complain of nervousness,
sleeplessness, and fatigue. Excessive noise exposure also can reduce job performance and may cause high
rates of absenteeism.
OSHA regulation 29 CFR 1910.95 limits a workers noise exposure to 90 decibels (dB) measured on the A
scale (dBA) for an 8-hour exposure. Time limits are shorter for higher noise levels.
The decibel is the unit used in sound level measurements. Instruments generally are designed to use in A-
weighted scale so that the instrument responds to the different sound frequencies in the same way as the
human ear. The decibel scale is non-linear (logarithmic), so 90 dBA is 10 times "louder" than 80 dBA.
When daily noise exposure is composed of two or more periods of different noise levels, their combined
effect should be considered, rather than the individual effects of each. If the sum (a time weighted average
[TWA]) of the following fractions C1/T1 + C2/T2…Cn/Tn exceeds 1, then the mixed exposure should be
considered to exceed the limit value. Cn indicates the total time of exposure at a specific noise level, and
Tn indicates the total time of exposure permitted at that level.
Recent rule-making by OSHA requires a continued, effective hearing conservation program whenever
worker exposures equal or exceed an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) sound level of 85 DBA.
The main elements of the hearing conservation program are:
• Monitoring of worker exposures
• Audiometric testing programs for those exposed above and 85 dBA TWA. This requires a
"baseline" audiogram for comparison and annual re-testing to see if there is any hearing loss
• Provisions for hearing protection must be available for those exposed to levels above 85 dBA
TWA.
• Informing exposed workers about noise hazards (or effects) and the elements of a hearing

conservation program

The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends that, for an 8-hour work day, workers
should not be exposed to noise levels above 85 dBA TWA. EPA's goal is to reduce that level to 75 dBA.
EPA also recommends that individuals should not be exposed to 70 dBA TWA for an entire 24-hour
workday.
40

2.3 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Animal bites, insect stings, contact with plants, microbes, and exposure to medical/infectious wastes are
examples of biological hazards that site personnel may encounter. Animal bites or insect stings are
usually nuisances (localized swelling, itching, and minor pain) that can be handled by first aid treatments.
The bites of certain snakes, lizards, spiders, and scorpions contain sufficient toxins to warn medical
attention.
There are diseases that can be transmitted by animal bites. Examples are Rocky Mountain spotted fever
(ticks), rabies (mainly dogs, skunks, raccoons, and fox's), malaria, and equine and encephalitis
(mosquito). The biggest hazard and most common cause of fatalities from animal bites, particularly bees,
wasps, and spiders, is a sensitivity reaction. Anaphylactic shock due to stings can lead to severe reactions
to the circulatory, respiratory, and central nervous system, and it can also cause death.
Toxic effects from plants are generally due to ingestion of nuts, fruits, or leaves. Of more concern to site
personnel are certain plants, including poison ivy/oak/sumac, which can produce adverse effects from
direct contact. The usual effect is dermatitis-inflammation of the skin. The protective clothing and
decontamination procedures used for chemicals also reduce the exposure risk for the plant toxins.
Additionally, barrier creams are commercially available which are designed to protect unclothed skin.
Cleaning the skin thoroughly with soap and water, or commercially available solutions, shortly after
contact will reduce the risk.
Another source of infection for such workers is poor sanitation. Water-borne and food-borne diseases can
be a problem if adequate precautions are not taken. Examples of water and/or food-borne diseases are
cholera, typhoid fever, viral hepatitis, salmonellosis, trichinosis, bacillary dysentery, and amoebic
dysentery. In an emergency response related to a disaster, water supplies may be affected. The source of
water for a long-term remedial action is also important. In some locations, it may be necessary to
transport water and food to the site. They must be handled properly and come from an uncontaminated
source.
The site personnel must also avoid creating any sanitation problems by making sure that properly
designed lavatory facilities are available at the worksite.
Microbial hazards can occur when the materials the workers are handling have biological as well as
chemical contamination. This can be a problem if a chemical spill is into or mixed with sewage. Most
bacteria that affect humans prefer a neutral environment (pH 7). Thus an extremely acidic or alkaline
environment would destroy or inhibit bacterial growth. However, during neutralization, the environment
could become more conducive to bacteria growth. In these situations, the normal decontamination
procedures would usually alleviate the problem.
Medical/infectious wastes include blood-borne pathogens such as Hepatitis B virus and the Human
Immunodeficient virus which are regulated by OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1030. This standard specifically
addresses proper engineering controls, work practices, and personal protective equipment to reduce the
risk of contact with blood-borne pathogens.
41

Hazwoper hazardous waste site 40 hour student initial course manual

Hazwoper hazardous waste site 40 hour student initial course manual

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