1. Introducing Psychology

2. Pre-quiz and learning Objectives
1.Explain why psychology is a science with the primary objectives of
describing, understanding, predicting, and controlling behavior and
mental processes.
2.Recognize major historical events, theoretical perspectives and figures
in psychology and their link to trends in current research

3. • INTRODUCTION Content:
• Definitions & goal of psychology
• History and origin of science of psychology
• Relevance to Accounting and Finance
• Theories in psychology

4. • DEFINITIONOF PSYCHOLOGY
• The term comes from two Greek roots:
• psyche meaning mind and
• logos meaning study or knowledge.
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• There are various definitions for psychology given by the variety of
authors which are-
• “study of mind” “descriptions and explanations of state of
consciousness” “William James”
• “study of consciousness” …. “Wilhelm Wundt ”

10. The Earliest Schools of Psychology
School of Psychology Description Historically Important People
Structuralism Focused on understanding
the conscious experience
through introspection
Wilhelm Wundt
Functionalism Emphasized how mental
activities helped an
organism adapt to its
environment
William James

11. The History of Psychology: Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory
• Late 1800s, early 1900s
• Focus on the unconscious
and on childhood experiences
• Theory of personality
• Interaction between id, ego, superego
• Today, controversial but still influential

12. The History of Psychology: Gestalt Theory
• Early 1900s
• Examined perception
• Explores the idea that although a sensory
experience can be broken down into
individual parts, how those parts relate
to each other as a whole is often what the
individual responds to in perception
• The “invisible” triangle you see here is an example of gestalt
perception.

13. The History of Psychology: Behaviorism
• Early to mid-1900s
• Focuses on observing and controlling behavior Conditioning
• Reinforcement and punishment
• Modified versions of the
operant conditioning chamber,
or Skinner box, are still widely used in
research settings today

14. The History of Psychology: Humanism
• 1950s
• Focuses on the potential for good that
is innate to all humans
• Emphasizes the whole person and
views people as able to take the lead in
their own therapy
• Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

15. The History of Psychology: Cognitive Psychology
• Mid-1900s
• Accepts the use of the scientific method and
generally rejects introspection as a valid method
of investigation
• Acknowledges the existence of internal
mental states, unlike behaviorist psychology
• Major areas of research include perception,
memory, categorization, knowledge representation,
numerical cognition, language, and thinking

17. The Five Psychological Domains

18. • ORIGIN OF SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
• “a science is the body of systematized knowledge that is gathered carefully
observing and measuring events.”
• Like any other science Psychology is also based on the observations and
experiments which others can repeat and verify. Psychology concerns with
the observation and explanations of human behavior in single individuals or
in groups.
• “a science deals with a group of related facts and principles of particular
subject”
• Psychology as a science deals with the motives, feelings, emotions,
thoughts action of men and women

19. • like a science, psychology discover and explain the underlying laws and
principles of human behavior.
• Psychology describes the laws of learning, feelings and thinking. Like any
other science, psychology collects the subject matter or facts of behavior.
• Psychology is a positive science not the normative as it describes the facts
of human behavior and its laws as they are not as they ought to be.
• Wundt was the first psychologist to measure the human behavior accurately.
• Sigmund Freud, Maslow, Rogers, Watson, Pavlov and Thichener were all
important in the development of Psychology as science.

20. • Scope of Psychology
• The field of psychology is ever-changing and developing.
• It can help us to better understand ourselves and others.
• It is both a science and a profession.
• Some psychologists research to discover new knowledge while others apply
psychology to solve problems.
• Psychology can be used in the fields of mental health, business, education,
sports, law, medicine, and even in the design of machines.
• Other psychologists are teachers who like to share their knowledge with
students.

21. • Scope of Psychology can be broadly classified into two groups
1. Basic Psychology
• It is aimed at contributing to knowledge of behavior. College,
universities, laboratories and departments are the main employment
settings of the basic Psychology.
• Basic psychology has the following subfields:-
1. Developmental psychology
It studies the human development, physical, emotional, social, moral
emotional and personality development across the life span
Developmental psychology primarily focused on the child development.
But today devotes a great deal of research to adolescence, adult and old
age group

22. 2. Social psychology
It deals with interpersonal behavior and the role of social forces in
governing behavior.
It primarily focuses on attitude formation, attitude change, prejudice,
leadership, conformity, attraction, aggression, intimate relationships and
behavior in groups
3. Physiological psychology
It examines the influence of genetic factors on behavior.
It also deals with the brain, nervous system, endocrine system and
bodily chemicals like the neurotransmitters in the regulation of behavior

23. 4. Abnormal psychology
It is also known as psychopathology.
It studies the models, causes, classification, diagnosis and the treatment
of individuals with psychological disorders.
5. Experimental psychology
Experimental psychologists restricts themselves chiefly to laboratory
research on basic psychological processes, including perception,
learning memory, thinking, motivation and emotions.
7. Cognitive psychology
Focuses on higher mental processes such as memory, thinking, reasoning,
information processing, language, problem solving, decision making,
creativity and artificial intelligence.

24. 7. Psychometrics
It is concerned with the measurements of behavior and capacities usually
through the development of psychological tests.
Psychometrics is involved with the design of tests to assess personality,
intelligence, and a wide range of abilities.
It is also involved with the development of new techniques for statistical
analysis
8. Personality psychology
• It describes and explains the individual consistency in behavior which
represents their personality.
• The area of interest is also concerned with the factors that determine
personality and personality assessment.

25. 2. Applied Psychology
• Applied psychology uses the various fields of basic psychology to improve
the quality of life of the human being in various fields like school, industry,
hospital, consultancy and community.
• Applied psychology has the following subfields-
1. Clinical psychology
It deals with the evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of individual
psychological disorders.
Principal activities include interviewing the client, psychological testing, and
providing group or individual psychotherapy.
2. Counseling Psychology
It usually works with a somewhat different clients, providing assistance to
people struggling with everyday problem of moderate severity. Thus they
often engage in family, marital and career counseling

26. 3. Organizational Psychology
It is an outgrowth of industrial psychology and also known as organizational
behavior .
It tries to study and solve the different organizational problems exist in the
school, hospitals, university, military, companies etc.
Here it tries to solve the problems of leadership, group conflicts, conflicts,
different levels of organization, organization culture, organization
development etc.
4. Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is mainly devoted to an understanding of the
different aspects of the teaching-learning process.
It is concerned with the application of the principles, techniques and methods
of psychology to the teaching-learning process.

27. 5. Health Psychology
Health psychology is the field that studies the role of the psychological
factors in the promotion of health and the prevention of illness.
It has the interest in relationship between stress and illness.
It describes the interaction of biological, psychological and social factors.
6. Environmental Psychology
Environmental psychologists work in school, industrial & governmental
settings.
They design work environment and study the effects of crowding, noise and
air pollution on behavior
7. Sports and Exercise Psychology
This field applies psychology to athletic activities and exercise
It considers the role of motivation, the social aspects of sports and physiological
impact of training on muscle development.

28. 8. Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology applies psychology to the legal system.
They include jury deliberation process and the best ways to select jurors.
Some forensic psychologists train police to handle domestic disputes,
negotiates, negotiate with hostage takers.
9. Women Psychology
It discusses the psychological factors relating to women’s behavior and
development.
It tries to explain various issues like discrimination against women, structural
differences between men and women, the effect of hormones on behavior,
causes of violence against women and so on

29. • Business psychology
• Business psychology, also known as industrial-organizational
psychology, combines the science of human psychology with practical
business application in order to improve the work environment for
employees, improve productivity in businesses, and organize groups of
people in companies.
• Consumer psychology is the study of purchasing behavior. It reveals
why people buy things. Its b-school equivalent is marketing.
• In short, businesses only exist because they involve people providing
goods and services to other people.
• Psychology helps us understand why all of those people do what they
do and want what they want.

31. • Relevance to Accounting and Finance
• Psychology plays a huge role in making investing decisions.
• Academics have studied the role of psychology in finance for years —
• the study of what they call ‘ Behavioral Finance’
• Behavioral finance
The field that combines psychology, economics and other social sciences to
identify and understand why people make certain financial choices
It can help advisors to develop long-term relationships with their clients and
build portfolios better suited to their clients.
• Behavioral finance studies how emotional, cognitive, and psychological
factors influence investment decisions.

32. • Behavioral finance proposes psychology-based theories to explain stock
market anomalies (e.g., dramatic rises or falls in stock price),
• And to identify and understand why people make certain financial choices.
Individual behaviors and thoughts impact spending, investing, trading,
financial planning and portfolio management.
• Most financial accounting issues deal with matters of human behavior,
such as the judgments and decisions of managers, investors, analysts, and
auditors.
• Consequently, psychology offers a rich pool of theories from
which financial accounting researchers can draw to motivate hypotheses
and interpret results

34. Pre-quiz and learning Objectives
1. Describe the scientific method as it applies to the study of human
behavior Interpret basic scientific research
2. Describe key regulations in the APA Ethics Code for the protection of
human and nonhuman research participants.

35. • Scientific Method of psychology
• The scientific method is a form of critical thinking based on careful
collection of evidence, accurate description and measurement, precise
definition, controlled observations, and repeatable results in a systematic
way.
• In a systematic way, the term method is used to describe a system of
procedures in order to lead to the desired outcome.
• Various research methods are applied in psychology for studying behavior,
development and learning process.
• Methods for investigation is chosen according to the nature of the problem,
objectives of investigation and scope

36. • Psychological research begins by defining a problem and proposing a
hypothesis.
• A hypothesis is a predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated guess
about the relationship between variables.
• Next researchers develop a research design to gather the evidence and
information to test the hypothesis.
• The results of the studies are made public so others have the chance to
evaluate, learn, and suggest new hypotheses that lead to further research.

37. The Process of Scientific Research

38. • Hypothesis or Theory?
• Hypothesis: (plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable
statement about the relationship between two or more variables
• Theory: well-developed set of ideas that propose an
explanation for observed phenomena

39. Theories and Hypotheses in the Scientific Method

40. • Psychological research must be done ethically to protect the rights, dignity,
and welfare of participants. Here are some basic ethical guidelines for
psychological researchers:

41. • Methods
 Observation method
 Experimental method
 Survey method
 Clinical Or Case study method

42.  Observation Methods
 Observation is a visual method of examining, describing, and
interpreting the reactions of individuals and groups in laboratory, or
natural situation.
 Here, we observe the mental processes and behaviour of others.
 There is natural social context in which person’s behavior is studied.
 Through observation, one tries to obtain QUALITATIVE as well as
QUANTITATIVE data

43. • Types of observation methods
 Direct
 Indirect
 Individual
 Group
 Participant
 Non-participant

44. • Experimental Method
 In the experimental method the conditions are always controlled.
 It essentially requires at least two persons, the experimenter and the
subject.
 Usually the experimental method is applied on persons in a random order.
 In the experimental method three different types of variables are used
 (a) Independent variable like emotional intelligence and
 (b) dependent variable like work place conflicts,
 (c) Controlling variables like socio-economic conditions etc.

45. • STEPS OF EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Problem
 A problem may be defined as an interrogative testable
statement which expresses the relationship between two or
more than two variables
 Hypothesis
 Hypothesis may be defined as a suggested testable answer to a
problem, which is stated in a declarative form/sentence, about
the relationship between two or more variables.

46.  Design of the experiment
It is a preplan of the investigation. The study of structure and planning
experiments is a filed of investigation commonly called the design of the
experiment, through which we can answer research question.
 To manipulate and distinguish variables
 Control: the attempt to produce a phenomenon in a pure condition by
regulating its environment is called controlling an experiment.
 The main aim of control of an experiment is to ensure that the influence of
all relevant variables is same for all the subjects and does not change
during the experiment

47.  Problem: What is the relationship between emotional
intelligence and workplace conflicts?
 Hypothesis : There is a significant relationship between
emotional intelligence workplace conflicts.
 Reporting and analyzing data
 After the conduct of an experiment, data are presented in tables
or figures/graphs.

48. Two ways to control an experiment:
 Control Group Method
 The experimental group
 Control group
 E.g.: Effect of practice on achievement.
Experimental Group: Practice - Achievement Score.
Control Group : No Practice - Achievement Score.

49.  Control Test Method
• Control condition
• Experimental condition
• This method is called the Test – Retest Method.
• Effect of Practice on achievement.
• Pre-I.V. Achievement Score – Practice – Post I.V. Achievement
Score

50. • Survey Method
 Survey studies are usually used to find the fact by collecting the data
directly from population or sample.
 A means of gathering information by asking a set of questions to a
sample of respondents who represent a population with specific
characteristics
 E.g., If the researcher wants to study the factors affecting the
consumer behaviour.

51. • Steps in survey method
 Research Design
 Select Sample
 Construct Questions
 Ask Questions
 Analyze Data
 Report Results

52. • Types of Survey method
 Personal interview
 It is a one to one interaction between two people.
 One is an INTERVIEWER ( who asks the questions) and the
other one is the INTERVIEWEE (or respondent, who answers
the questions).
 Structured interview
 Un structured interview

53. Panel technique
 It is a type of technique which requires successive interviews with
the same sample i.e. Re-interview is designed and the same sample
is interviewed more than once.
 Panel studies examine changes over time within a selected sample
that remains constant.
 For example, you are interested in describing the changes that occur
over time as people age. You could select a group of people and
have them complete a variety of measures at repeated intervals over
several decades.

54. Questionnaire
• It’s one of the most simple, versatile and low cost self reporting
method.
• Consists of pre-determined set of questions
• Questionnaire is used for collecting demographic info, attitudes,
knowledge etc.
• Types of questions used in a survey :
1. Open Ended : E.g. What is friendship to you?
2. Close Ended : E.g. Friendship is a) Love b)Family
3. Rating method : From most preferred to the least.

55. • Clinical (Case Study) method
 The ‘clinical’ method deals with the emotional & mental state of an
individual. This method is applied to study special behavioural
problems of an individual by specially trained psychologist and
psychiatrists
 Total information of family background, and also social conditions of
the individuals is obtained.
 In organizational setting, a organizational psychologist can study the
employee, clients and managers issues in depth on various aspects;
emotional, intellectual, social moral and personal.

56. • Method Of Diagnosis
 Detailed physical checkup
 Making out the case history
 The clinical interview
 Direct observation of behavior
 Using tests and measuring devices
 Case study method provides details about the individual’s behaviour,
an in-depth study about the root cause of the behavioural problems,
and help to provide guidance to modify the behaviour of the subject.

57. • Methods of treatment
 Efforts must be made to modify the environmental factors so that the
individual can adapt better.
 Modifying the individual’s attitude
 Proper guidance and counselling should be provided to the
individual.
 Different types of therapies should be applied like play therapy,
group therapy, psychotherapy etc. by experts.

58. Comparison of Psychological Research Methods

59. Neuro Science

60. • Behavioral Neuroscience
• Neuroscience, also known as Neural Science, is the study of
• how the nervous system develops
• its structure
• and what it does.
• Neuroscientists focus on the brain and its impact on behavior and
cognitive functions
• Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology
biopsychology, or psychobiology
• It is the application of the principles of biology to the study of
physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in
humans and other animals

61. • Biology and Behavior
• Behavioral neuroscience
– Studies
• Relation between biological & psychological functions
–Can help us understand
• Nature of personality
• Causes of abnormal behavior
• Reaction to stress
• Effectiveness of therapy

62. • Biological Bases of Behavior
The Nervous System
 Endocrine Glands
The Nervous system
• The system that controls and regulates the structure and function of the
brain, spinal cord, nerves, and the nerve cells; it maintains coordination
between the nervous system and the rest of the bodily systems.
• It is responsible for the internal communication system that ensures the
integrated functioning of the various systems.
• The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells
known as neurons
• Neurons transmit signals between different parts of the body.
• It is essentially the body's electrical wiring.

63. • Some Interesting Facts about the Nervous system
• The Nervous System includes all neural tissue in the body
• It consists of billions of highly specialized nerve cells called neurons.
• Neural tissue contains two kind of cells
• Neurons: Cells that send and receive signals
• Neuroglia: Cells that support and protect neurons
• Nerve impulse is an electrical impulse that travels along the nerves at a speed
of around 400km/ hour.
• Every second, a number of these impulses can pass along nerves.
• Brain cells never re grow; once destroyed or dead, they can not be replaced.
• The brain is divided into two visible parts or hemispheres; the left hemisphere
controls the right side of the body, and the right controls the left side.

64. Neuron
A nervous system cell is constituted in such a way that it is specialized in
receiving, processing, and/or transmitting information to other cells.

65. • Structure of a Neuron
• Dendrites:
• Receivers of incoming signals; branch fibers extending outward from
the cell body
• Soma: The cell body containing the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the
cell; cytoplasm keeps it alive.
• Axon:
• The nerve impulses travel from the soma to the terminal buttons
through the extended fiber of a neuron i.e., axon.
• Terminal Buttons:
• Swollen, bulblike structures at one end of the axon; the neuron
stimulates the nearby glands, muscles, or other neurons

66. • Major Varieties of Neurons
Sensory Neurons (afferent):
carry messages toward the Central Nervous System from the sensory
receptor cells.
Motor Neurons (efferent):
carry messages away from the Central Nervous System toward the muscles
and glands.
Inter-Neurons:
relay messages from sensory neurons to other inter-neurons and/or to
motor neurons.

67. The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main feature is to
generate, modulate and transmit information between all the different
parts of the human body.
Structurally, the nervous system has two components:
1.Central nervous system (CNS)
The CNS is comprised of the brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system. (PNS)
The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off
from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body

68. .

70. • The Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Consists of spinal cord and brain
• Contain neural tissue, connective tissue, and blood vessels
• Functions of the CNS are to process and coordinate:
• Sensory data from inside and outside body
• Motor commands control activities of peripheral organs (e.g.,
skeletal muscles)
• Higher functions of brain intelligence, memory, learning, emotion

71. • The Brain
• The center of the nervous system.
• The vital organ that is responsible for the functions of seeing, hearing,
smelling, tasting, thinking, feeling, remembering, speaking, dreaming,
information processing, and a lot more.
• The regulator of basic survival functions such as breathing, resting and
feeding.
• It is responsible for abstract level functions such as decision making,
foresight, and problem solving.
• The spinal cord is an information highway connecting the PNS to the brain.
• Information travels to and from the brain by way of spinal cord.

72. Major Parts of Brain
• The brain can be divided into the three main parts:
• cerebrum
• brainstem
• and cerebellum

73. 1. Cerebrum
• The cerebrum (forebrain) is composed of the right and left
hemispheres, which are joined by the corpus callosum.
• The cerebral cortex is the thin layer of the brain that covers the outer
portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum.
• Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each
associated with different functions.
• It plays a key role in attention, perception, awareness, thought,
memory, language, and consciousness
• Functions of the cerebrum include:
• Process sensory information and helps with, reasoning, problem
solving, emotions, and learning and regulates automatic, endocrine,
and motor functions

74. Frontal lobe
• It is the most anterior part of the cerebrum. It is involved in activities
like muscle control, higher intellect, personality, mood, social
behaviour, and language.
Parietal lobe
• It is situated between the frontal and occipital lobes, and separated
from them by the central and parieto-occipital sulci respectively. It is
involved in language and calculation, as well as the perception of
various sensations such as touch, pain, and pressure

75. • Temporal lobe
• It is responsible for memory, language sensation of taste, touch, sound,
and hearing. It sits below the previous two lobes, from which it is
separated by the lateral sulcus.
• Occipital lobe
• The occipital lobe is the most posterior portion of the cerebrum and it
is responsible for vision.

77. 2. Brainstem
• The brainstem (middle of brain) includes the midbrain, the pons, and the
medulla.
• Functions of this area include: movement of the eyes and mouth, relaying
sensory messages (such as hot, pain, and loud), respirations, consciousness,
cardiac function, involuntary muscle movements, sneezing, coughing,
vomiting, and swallowing.
3. Cerebellum
• The cerebellum (which is Latin for “little brain”) is a major structure of the
hindbrain that is located near the brainstem.
• It carries 10% of the weight of the brain.
• Its functions are to help regulate automatic functions, relay sensory
information, coordinate movement, and maintain balance and equilibrium.

78. • Spinal Cord
• Did you know that our body has a power cord that runs all day long
and never has to be plugged in?
• It's called your spinal cord, and instead of wires, it contains nerves
that travel to and from your brain.
• Those nerves carry information by way of electrical signals or
impulses.
• Our brain and spinal cord work together to make sure everything runs
smoothly in your body. Together, they make up your central nervous
system.

79. • Spinal cord is a delicate structure, but luckily, it's protected by a bony
structure called the vertebral column or backbone.
• The vertebral column is not a single bone. Instead, it's made up of
small, moveable bones called vertebra.
• There are 7 cervical vertebrae in your neck, 12 thoracic vertebrae in
your upper back, and 5 lumbar vertebrae in your low back.
• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that come off of the spinal cord and
pass through holes in the vertebral column.
• The nerves that come off of the spinal cord make up your peripheral
nervous system. They link your body parts to your central nervous
system.

81. • Functions of Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord's main function is to carry electrical signals between your
brain and the rest of your body.
• Those electrical messages let your brain know what's going on in your body
and also allow your brain to tell your muscles and organs what to do.
• Your spinal cord also controls your reflexes.
• A reflex is a quick action that your body does without telling the brain.
• Did you ever touch a hot stove and quickly pull your hand away, even
before you could think, 'Ouch, that's hot!' That's a reflex.
• The sensation of heat that was picked up by your finger traveled to your
spinal cord. Instead of wasting the time it would take to carry that message
to your brain, your spinal cord sent a message to your arm muscles to pull
away.

82. • The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Include all neural tissue outside the CNS
• Functions of PNS
• Deliver sensory information to CNS
• Carry motor commands to peripheral tissues and systems
• Nerves (also called peripheral nerves)
• Bundles of axons with connective tissues and blood vessels
• Carry sensory information and motor commands in PNS
• Cranial nerves—connect to brain
• Spinal nerves—attach to spinal cord

83. • Functional Divisions of PNS
• Afferent division
• Carries sensory information
• From PNS sensory receptors to CNS
• Efferent division
• Carries motor commands
• From CNS to PNS muscles and glands
• Receptors and effectors of afferent division
• Receptors
• Detect changes or respond stimuli
• Neurons and specialized cells
• Complex sensory organs (e.g., eyes, ears)
• Effectors
• Respond to efferent signals
• cells and organs

84. • The efferent division
• Somatic nervous system (SNS)
• Controls voluntary and involuntary (reflexes) muscle skeletal
contractions
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Controls subconscious actions, contractions of smooth muscle and
cardiac muscle, and glandular secretions
• Sympathetic division has a stimulating effect
• Parasympathetic division has relaxing effect

85. Central and Peripheral Nervous System

86. The Endocrine System
• The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that produce
chemical substances known as hormones
• Hormones regulate behaviors such as aggression, mating, and
parenting of individuals
• Hormones influence behavior, and behavior can sometimes influence
hormone concentrations
• The study of psychology and the endocrine system is called behavioral
endocrinology

87. Sensation, Perception and
Attention

88. Sensation & Perception
When we smell a fragrant flower, are we experiencing a sensation or a
perception?
In everyday language, the terms "sensation" and "perception' are often
used interchangeably.
However, as you will soon see, they are very distinct, yet
complementary processes.
In this section, we will discuss some concepts central to the study of
sensation and perception and then move on Attention.

89. • The topics of sensation and perception are among the oldest and most
important in all of psychology.
• People are equipped with senses such as sight, hearing and taste that
help us to take in the world around us.
• Amazingly, our senses have the ability to convert real-world
information into electrical information that can be processed by the
brain.
• The way we interpret this information-- our perceptions-- is what leads
to our experiences of the world.
• In this module, you will learn about the biological processes of
sensation and how these can be combined to create perceptions.

90. • Sensory information
• Includes vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch balance, body position,
movement, pain, and temperature
• The physical process during which our sensory organs those involved
with hearing and taste,
• for example—respond to external stimuli is called sensation.
• Sensation happens when you eat noodles or feel the wind on your face
or hear a car horn honking in the distance.

93. • During sensation, our sense organs are engaging in transduction, the
conversion of one form of energy into another.
• Physical energy such as light or a sound wave is converted into a form
of energy the brain can understand: electrical stimulation.
• After our brain receives the electrical signals, we make sense of all
this stimulation and begin to appreciate the complex world around us.
• This psychological process—making sense of the stimuli—is called
perception
• The process by which sensory information is actively organized and
interpreted by the brain
• The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting raw sensory data
into useful mental representations of the world.

94. • Perception:
• How sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced
• Sensation is a physical process, whereas perception is psychological
• Attention and motivation determine what is sensed versus what is
perceived
• •Sensory adaptation

96. • The Perceptual Process
• 1. Sensation
• An individual’s ability to detect stimuli in the immediate envioronment
• 2. Selection
• The process a person uses to eliminate some of the stimuli that have
been sensed and to retain others for further processing.
• 3. Organization
• The process of Placing selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for
“storage”
• 4. Translation
• In this stage stimuli are interpreted and given meaning

98. • Factors of Perception
• 1. Objective Factors
• There are number of characteristics of stimuli that influence our perception
• 1. Intensity
• 2. Size
• 3. Distinct & Striking
• 4. Movement
• 5. Novelty
• 6. Duration
• 7. Repetition
• 8. Abrupt Change

99. • Subjective Factors
• Sometimes, perception is determined not only by the physical
characteristics of stimuli but by the characteristics of the perceiver.
These are
• 1. Motives or needs
• 2. Interests & values
• 3. Past experience
• 4. Age
• 5. Preparatory set
• 6. Social & cultural factors

100. •

105. Attention
• The concept of ‘attention’ is an area of study under cognitive
psychology.
• Attention refers to one’s ability to select and focus on relevant stimuli.
• Their attention allows them to concentrate on the things that are
important to them
• Attention is a dynamic phenomenon that changes according to the
immediate environment.
• It’s a complex process that’s rooted in various cognitive functions.
• Over the years, researchers have identified various types of attention
in psychology

106. Types of Attention

107. 1.Selective Attention
• Every day we’re exposed to various stimuli.
• Selective attention helps us navigate complex settings.
• You select from various stimuli and focus on what you find important. Take
the workplace, for example.
• If You are working in office and surrounded by coworkers and electronics
which can act as distractions. You use selective attention to focus on your
work

109. 2. Sustained Attention
• This is the ability to focus on something for long periods of time
without being distracted.
• In other words, you concentrate on time-consuming tasks by using
sustained attention. There are three stages of sustained attention:
• Paying attention, when you start to focus
• Keeping attention, when you continue to focus
• Ending attention, when you finally stop paying attention
• Students often employ sustained attention to study for examinations.
You’ve probably used sustained attention for activities such as
attending meetings or conferences or presentation.

111. 3. Divided Attention
• When you focus on two or more things at the same time, you’re using
divided attention.
• This ability is also known as multitasking.
• Divided attention uses focus on a very large scale—not allowing us to
fully focus on any one task.
• Divided attention doesn’t last long because you split your attention
between various tasks and perform them at the same time.
• Multitasking is harmful as it affects your productivity in the long run.
• You must divide your attention only when it is absolutely necessary.

113. 4. Alternating Attention
• Similar to divided attention, alternating attention involves shifting
your focus and switching between multiple tasks.
• However, unlike divided attention, you’re not performing multiple
activities at the same time. Even when you switch your attention
among various tasks, you remain focused on the task at hand.
• We use alternating attention more often than we realize.
• For example, you switch your focus between taking notes and making
sense of those notes during a meeting or presentation.
• Reading a cooking recipe (learning) and then performing the task of
recipe (cooking/doing)

115. Determining factors of attention
• There are determining factors that can affect the functioning of attention
and can define which stimulus you will direct your attention to.
• These can be external or internal
External factors
• These factors come from surroundings and make concentration on
relevant stimuli easier or more difficult. Some examples are:
Intensity:
• the more intense a stimulus is (strength of stimulus) the more likely you
are to give attention resources to it.

116. Size
• the bigger a stimulus is the more attention resources it captures.
Movement
• moving stimuli capture more attention that ones that remain
static.
Novelty
• newer or strange stimuli attract more of our attention.
Change
• if a different stimulus appears that breaks the dynamic, our
attention will be directed to the new stimulus.

117. • Colour:
• colourful stimuli are more attention grabbing than black and white
ones.
• Contrast
• stimuli that contrast against a group attract more of our attention.
• Emotional burden
• positive just as much as negative stimuli attract our attention more
than neutral ones.

118. • Internal factors (internal determiners):
• These factors come from the individual and therefore, depend on each
person. Some examples are:
Interests
• we concentrate more on stimuli that interests us.
Emotion
• stimuli that provoke stronger emotions attract more attention. However, it
must be kept in mind that positive moods contribute to focusing attention
resources, but negative moods make concentration more difficult.
Effort required by the task
• people make a prior evaluation of the effort required to do a task and
depending on this, it will attract more or less attention.

119. Organic state
• depends on the physical state that the person is in. So, states of
tiredness, discomfort, fever, etc. will make mobilising attention more
difficult. If, on the other hand, a person is in a state relating to survival
• for example, thirst or hunger, stimuli related with the satiation of
these needs will attract more attention resources.
Trains of thought
• when thoughts follow a determined course, based on concrete ideas,
the appearance of stimuli related to these will capture more of our
attention.

121. Test Span of Attention
• How many birds are flying in given sceneries?
• How many windows does the house has?
• How many trees are in the sceneries?
• Does the house has a chimney?
• How many doors does the house has?

122. • Selective Attention test 1
• https://youtu.be/_bnnmWYI0lM
• Selective Attention test 2
• https://youtu.be/_bnnmWYI0lM

123. Theories of Learning

124. Definition of Learning
• Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour
that occurs as a result of practice and experience”. This definition has
three important elements.
• Learning is a change in behaviour (better or worse).
• It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but
changes due to growth or maturation are not learning.
• This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must
last a fairly long time.

125. Factors Affecting Learning

126. Theories of Learning
• Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they
learn.
• They have conducted many experiments on animals and children and
come to certain definite conclusions which explain the modes of
learning.
• These are called as theories of learning.
• These theories only analyze the relationship between IV and DV from
different angle.

127. • Major classifications of these theories are:
• Learning by trial and Error
• Learning by Conditioning
• Humanistic theory of Learning

128. Trial and Error Learning Theory
(Connectionism)
• Developed by an American psychologist EL Thorndike
• Learning takes place through trial and error method.
• According to him learning is a gradual process where the individual
will make many attempts to learn.
• A trail is defined by the length of time or number of errors.
• According to this theory when an individual is placed in a new
situation, he makes a number of random movements. Among them,
those which are unsuccessful are eliminated and the successful ones
are fixed.

129. • Thorndike studies the character of trial and error learning in a number
of experiments on cats-using a box which he called ‘puzzle box’ and
rats.
• Conclusion of experiments
• This learning is possible only when the learner is motivated to learn.
• The animals shows different types of responses. It claws, bites,
sneezes and pull the objects
• Out of many responses only a few lead to perfection in learning
• Correct responses can be learnt better because they lead the learner
toward goal.
• Incorrect responses are eliminated

130. • The trials increase, the errors decrease.
• When the cat learns the trick of getting the food,. it comes to correct
action. This implies perfection in learning.
• Learning is a gradual process. It is not regular or smooth.
• Learning is an association between sense impressions and responses.
• There is no place of reasoning or intelligence
• It is fully mechanical.

131. Law of Learning
1. Law of readiness:
• The law states that “when any conduction unit is ready to conduct, for it
to conduct is satisfying. When any conduction unit is not ready to
conduct, for it to conduct is annoying”.
• Law of readiness is connected with both the law of effect and law of
exercise.
• Readiness involves maturation (physical & mental aspects) and interest.
• Here teacher must know whether the learner is ready or not. Some
children are physically ready but mentally they are far behind.

132. 2. Law of Effect:
• The law stated that “any behavior that is followed by pleasant
consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.”
• In fact, activities which are biologically protective in nature are
satisfying while the ones which pose some danger to the organism are
annoying.
• Effect of reward and punishment.

133. 3. Law of Exercise:
• This law is known as the law of use and disuse.
• With practice, the connection is strengthened. When the practice is
discontinued, connection is weakened.
• Practise makes a man perfect.
• Ex: practise of dance, cycling, and typing etc.
• Perfection comes with practice provided errors are removed instantly.
• Over learning of an activity brings excellence in it.
• Practice brings improvement, when other factors like rewards are
present.

134. Learning by Conditioning
• The mechanism of conditioning is mainly classified into:
• A: Classical Conditioning
• It’s a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly
paired:
• A response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is
eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
• B. Operant Conditioning
• It is a type of learning where behaviour is controlled by consequences.
Key concept in operant conditioning are positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment.

135. Operant/ Instrumental conditioning theory
• Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental
conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behaviour.
• Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a
behaviour and a consequence of that behaviour.
• For example, when a lab rat presses a green button, he receives a food
pellet as a reward, but when he presses the red button he receives a
mild electric shock.
• As a result, he learns to press the green button but avoid the red
button.

137. Principle of Operant Conditioning
• 1. Reinforcement
• Refer to any process that strengthens a particular behaviour
• Its increase the chance that the behaviour will occure again
• Positive reinforcement
• A method of strengthening behaviour by following it with a pleasant
stimulus.
• Negative reinforcement
• It is a method of strengthening a behaviour by following it with the
removal or omission of an unpleasant stimulus.

138. • 2. Punishment
• Weaken a behaviour, reducing the chance that the behavior will occur
again
• Positive punishment
• Involves reducing a behavior by delivering an unpleasant stimulus if
the behavior occurs
• With positive punishment, you are adding an undesirable consequence.
• Negative Punishment
• It involves reducing a behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus if the
behavior occurs
• With negative punishment, you are removing a desirable stimulus

139. • His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist
Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect.
• According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable
outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by
undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
• Let’s deal and discuss this with some scenarios

140. Classical conditioning
• The major theorist in the development of classical conditioning is Ivan
Pavlov, a Russian scientist trained in biology and medicine .
• Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through
associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus.
• Also, the environment shapes the behavior and internal mental state
such as thoughts, feelings, emotions do not explain the human
behavior.

141. • A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a
response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings that
response.
• Neutral Stimulus
This stimulus does not naturally cause the subject to respond in a
certain way.
• Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that naturally (no learning involved) causes a particular
response

142. The “Pavlov’s Dog” Experiment
• In the 1890s, Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov was studying aspects of the
digestive process by observing salivation in dogs, when he made the
observation that dogs began to salivate before the food arrived. For
example, at the sight of the food tray or sound of the assistant’s
footsteps.
• This work became the foundation for classical conditioning and the
behavioral approach to psychology.

143. 1. Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (Bell rings) No notable response
2. Before Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (meat) Salivation (Unconditioned Response)
3. During Conditioning
(Bell ring+ meat) Salivation (Unconditioned Response)
4. After Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (Bell ring) Salivation(Conditioned Response)

144. Classical Conditioning Processes
Acquisition:
The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the conditioned
response—for example, the dog learning to salivate at the sound of the
bell..
Extinction:
Extinction is used to describe the elimination of the conditioned
response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the
unconditioned stimulus.
If a dog has learned to salivate at the sound of a bell, an experimenter
can gradually extinguish the dog’s response by repeatedly ringing the
bell without presenting food afterward.

145. • Generalization
Generalization occurs when an organism produces the same response
to two similar stimuli.
• Discrimination (classical conditioning)
In classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between two signals
or stimuli and produce different responses.
Spontaneous Recovery.
After extinction, if the experimenter lets a few hours pass and then rings
the bell again, the dog will usually salivate at the sound of the bell once
again.
The reappearance of an extinguished response after some time has
passed is called spontaneous recovery.

146. Educational implications of pavlov
classical conditioning theory
• Following are the some of the educational implications of pavlov
classical conditioning theory
• Fear, love, and hatred towards specific subjects are created
through conditioning. For example a Maths teacher with his or
her defective method of teaching and improper behavior in the
classroom may be disliked by Learners.
• The good method and kind treatment a teacher can bring
desirable impacts upon the learners. The learners may like the
boring subject because of teacher's role.

147. • In teaching A.V. Aids role is very vital .When a teacher want to teach
a cat. He or she shows the picture of the cat along with the spellings.
When teacher shows picture at the same time and spell out the
spellings, after a while when only picture is shown and the Learners
spell the word cat.
• Pavlovs classical conditioning theory can be used for developing good
habits and elimination of bad ones and various kinds of phobias can be
controlled through it.

148. Social cognitive Theory
• Albert Bandura
• Born in Alberta, Canada 1925.
• Interested in behaviorist learning theories.
• During high school summer he worked in the Alaskan Yukon which
he credits for his interests, psychopathology.
• Completed Masters and Ph.D. in three years.
• Professor at Stanford University since 1953.
• Author of over 300 scholarly publications.
• Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) of publications

149. • Social Cognitive Theory
• Bobo doll experiment:
• Adults were recorded being aggressive to bobo dolls Children were
shown the video and then allow to play in a room full of toys
• Children were aggressive to the bobo doll just as the adults were in the
video (Cherry, 2014). Social Cognitive Theory
• Through his research, Bandura observed that components of learning
occur though observation and modeling behaviors
• This concept led to the theoretical framework of the social cognitive
learning theory (Famous People Info, 2011).

150. • Assumptions Of Social Cognitive Theory
• Learning occurs by observing others and modeling
• Internal processes and cognition of observed behavior may or may not
lead to a learned behavior ( learning performance distinction).
• Behavior is goal directed- goals are set and behavior is directed to
accomplishing the goal (motivation driven)
• Behavior is eventually self-regulated
• Punishment and reinforcement have indirect effects on the learning
process (Hurst, 2014).

151. • Social Cognitive Theory: Modeling
• Models can be real people (teachers, coaches etc.)
• Models can also come from media: books, TV, Magazines (symbolic)
• Models can influence behavior: positively or negatively (Schunk,
2012).
• Modeling Example
• Sana did well on her test, Sara and Hania, Ali and Osama want to do
well on the next test:
• they study harder after seeing Sara’s score

152. Bandura's Theory Applied in the Classroom
• The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of
observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional
reactions of others
• Student discussion about this application……………..

154. What is Motivation?
• The term "motivation" describes why a person does something.
• It is the driving force behind human actions.
• Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-
oriented behaviors.
• Motivation includes the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive
forces that activate human behavior.

155. • Types of Motivation
• The two main types of motivation are frequently described as being
either extrinsic or intrinsic.
• Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and
often involves external rewards such as trophies, money, social
recognition, or praise.
• Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the
individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for
the gratification of solving a problem.

157. • A Third Type of Motivation?
• Some research suggests that there is a third type of motivation:
• family motivation.
• An example of this type is going to work when you are not motivated
to do so internally (no intrinsic motivation), but because it is a means
to support your family financially.

158. Process of Motivation

159. 1.Unsatisfied need. Motivation process begins when there is an
unsatisfied need in a human being.
2.Tension. The presence of unsatisfied need gives him tension.
3.Drive. This tension creates an urge of drive in the human being an he
starts looking for various alternatives to satisfy the drive.
4.Search Behavior. After searching for alternatives the human being
starts behaving according to chosen option.
5.Satisfied need. After behaving in a particular manner for a long time
then he evaluates that whether the need is satisfied or not.
6.Reduction of tension. After fulfilling the need the human being gets
satisfied and his tension gets reduced.

160. • For example
• If an employee develops a need to earn more, this need will make him
restless and he will start thinking how to satisfy his need. To satisfy his
need he may think of working hard in organization and get promotion
so he will start working hard. After sometime he will get incentives or
increments or promotion which will satisfy his need.
• But motivation process does not end by satisfaction of one need. After
fulfilling one need another need develops and the same process
continues till needs keep emerging in human beings.

161. • Importance of Motivation
1.Motivation helps to change from negative attitude to positive attitude.
Without motivation the employees try to perform minimum activities in the
organization. But the motivation fills in the desire to perform to their
maximum level. All the resources of the organization are of no use unless
and until the employees use these resources. The motivated employees
make best use of the resources.
2.Motivation improves performance level of employees. The motivation
improves the efficiency level of employees which means the employees
start performing the job to the best of their ability with minimum wastage of
time and resources because motivated employees always go for best
utilization of resources. The motivation bridges the gap between the ability
to work and willingness always improves efficiency.

162. • Help in achieving the organizational goals. The motivated employees
always try to achieve the organizational goal and contribute their best
efforts for the realization of organizational goal as they know with the
achievement of organizational goal only they can achieve their personal
goal. All the employees contribute their efforts in one direction of
accomplishment of goal.
• Motivation creates supportive work environment. In motivation the
relations between superior and subordinates are always improved. When the
employees get their need satisfied or get the recognition and respect in the
organization then they always offer a supportive hand to superiors. There is
more co-operation and co-ordination in the organization and all the
employees work with the team spirit.

163. • Motivation helps the managers to introduce changes. The motivated
employees show less resistance in accepting the changes according to
changes in the business environment because they know if the changes are
not implements in the organization, not only the organization will lose by
this but the employees also will find it difficult to get their needs fulfilled.
Motivated employees are always supportive and co-operative in accepting
changes in the organization.
• Reduction in Employee Turnover. The motivation creates confidence in
the employees to get their need satisfied in the organization itself. They
always select the alternative to remain in the organization and increase their
earning rather than leaving the organization and increasing their earnings.
With motivation employee turnovers are less because the satisfied
employees never leave the job.

164. • Four General Approaches to Motivation:
• Motivation is a vast and complicated subject encompassing many
theories.
• Some theories were developed through work with animals in
laboratories.
• Others are based on research with humans in situations using games
and puzzles.

165. • Behaviorist Approaches to Motivation
• According to the behavioral view, the motivation depends on the incentives
and rewards present in the environment. A reward is an attractive object or
event supplied as a consequence of a particular behavior. An incentive is an
object or event that encourages or discourages behavior.
• If the person is consistently reinforced for certain behaviors, then he/she
may develop habits or tendencies to act in a certain way. Providing grades,
stars, stickers and other reinforcements for learning or demerits for
misbehavior is an attempt to motivate students by extrinsic means of
incentives rewards and punishments.
• Skinner, Pavlov, and Thorndike put motivation at the center of their theories
of human behaviour.

166. • Reinforcement theory
• Reinforcement theory is based on the work of Ivan Pavlov on behavioral
conditioning and the later work of B. F. Skinner on operant
conditioning.Skinner, B. F. (1953).
• According to reinforcement theory, behavior is a function of its outcomes.
• stresses the role that reinforcers and punishments play in motivation.
• Reinforcement theory is evident in the various schedules used to reward
workers.
• The theory is applied to increase motivation through organizational
behavior modification programs.
• Reinforcement theory describes four interventions to modify employee
behavior. Two of these are methods of increasing the frequency of desired
behaviors, while the remaining two are methods of reducing the frequency
of undesired behaviors.

168. • Humanistic Approaches to Motivation
• In the early 1940s, Carl Rogers, one of the proponents of humanistic
psychology emphasize that intrinsic sources of motivation as a person’s
needs. So, from the humanistic perspective to motivate means to encourage
people’s inner resources, their sense of competence, self-esteem autonomy
and self actualization, Maslow’s Theory is a very influential humanistic
explanation of motivation.

169. • Need Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s and Alderfer’s basic need theories propose that needs are
arranged in a hierarchy from the lowest, most basic needs, to higher-order
needs such as the need for esteem or self-actualization.

171. • Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
• Cognitive theorists believe that the behavior of an individual is determined
by the thinking process and not by rewards and punishment.
• Behavior is initiated and regulated by plans, goals, schemas, expectations.
and attributions.
• People respond to their interpretations of the external events or physical
conditions. Cognitive theorist emphasizes on intrinsic motivation.
• The cognitive theories of motivation include the Expectancy Theory and the
Goal-Setting Theory.

172. • Expectancy Theory
• Proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the Expectancy Theory explicates
the behavioral process in which a person selects a behavioral option over
another, and how this decision is made in relation to their aim of achieving
their goal.
• In this theory, three variables were introduced by Vroom to explain the said
behavioral process. These include “V” for valence, “E” for expectancy, and
“I” for instrumentality
 Valence (positiveness of outcome)
 Instrumentality (beliefs in one’s ability to perform the necessary
behavior)
 Expectancy (belief that the behavior will actually lead to the outcome)

173. • Goal-Setting Theory
• Another cognitive theory of motivation, the Goal-Setting Theory was
proposed by Edwin Locke in the 1960s.
• The theory explains that goal setting has an influence on task performance.
Specific and challenging goals are more likely to motivate a person and lead
to a better execution of tasks, whereas vague and easy goals may result to
poor task performance.
• In application, therefore, the goals should be set must be
• SMART – Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-Bound.

174. • Job design theories of motivation
• It stress the structure and design of jobs as key factors in motivating
workers.
• Job Design is a psychological theory of motivation that is defined as the
systematic and purposeful allocation of tasks to groups and individuals
within an organization.

175. • Herzberg’s two-factor theory
• Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different
way. By asking individuals what satisfies them on the job and what
dissatisfies them,
• Herzberg came to the conclusion that aspects of the work environment that
satisfy employees are very different from aspects that dissatisfy them.
• It focuses on job satisfaction and dissatisfaction as two independent
dimensions important in determining motivation.
• Motivators are factors related to job content that, when present, lead to job
satisfaction.
• motivators are factors that are intrinsic to the job, such as achievement,
recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and
growth opportunities.
• According to Herzberg’s research, motivators are the conditions that truly
encourage employees to try harder.

176. • Hygienes are elements related to job context that, when absent, cause job
dissatisfaction.
• Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working
conditions, salary, safety, and security on the job.
• According to Herzberg, the presence of hygienes will prevent job
dissatisfaction, but motivators are needed for employee job satisfaction and
hence motivation.

178. Behavioral Humanistic Cognitive Job design
Source of
Motivation
Extrinsic Intrinsic Intrinsic Intrinsic
Important
Influences
Reinforcers,
reward,
incentives and
punishers
Need for self-
esteem, self-
fulfillment and
self-
determination
Beliefs,
attributes for
success and
failure
expectations
job satisfaction
and
dissatisfaction
Key
Theorist
Skinner Maslow Victor H. Vroom Herzberg

179. Industrial/Organizational
Psychology

180. • History of Industrial/ Organizational (I-O) Psychology
• It began as a branch of psychology in December 1901
• when Dr. Walter Dill Scott in the U.S.A spoke on the possibilities of
the application of psychological principles to the field of advertising
• It tries to understand the human problems that have arisen as a result
of tremendous expansion of industry in the last few decades
• The term “founding father” of I/O psychology is usually associated
with Hugo Munsterberg of Harvard University.
• His 1913 book on Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, is considered
to be the first textbook in I/O psychology.
• The book is the first to discuss topics such as how to find the best
person for the job and how to design jobs to maintain efficiency by
dealing with fatigue.

181. Introduction
• Organization is a body of individuals working under a defined system
of rules, assignments, procedures and relationship design to achieve
identical objective and goals. - (Green Wald)
• Organizational Behavior refers to a social unit within which people
have achieved somewhat stable relations among themselves (not
necessarily face to face) in order to facilitate obtaining a set of
objectives or goals.
• Industrial/ Organizational (I-O) Psychology is the scientific study of
human behavior, using psychology principles & research methods to
solve problems in the workplace and improve the quality of life.

182. • Industrial-organizational psychology is the branch of psychology that
applies psychological theories and principles to organizations/work
place.
• It deal with the understanding, prediction and control of human
behaviour in organizations.
• Often referred to as I-O psychology, this field focuses on increasing
workplace productivity and related issues such as the physical and
mental well-being of employees.
• It studies workplace productivity, management & employee working
styles and ways to enhance employee, employer and consumer
satisfaction through physical & mental well being.

183. • Why is industrial-organizational psychology important?
• There are many reasons for organizations to be interested in I/O
• so that they can better understand the psychology of their workers,
which in turn helps them understand how their organizations can
become more productive and competitive.
• For example, most large organizations are now competing on a global
level, and they need to understand how to motivate workers in order to
achieve high productivity and efficiency.

184. • Most companies also have a diverse workforce and need to understand
the psychological complexity of the people in these diverse
backgrounds.
• Industrial psychology plays an important role in establishing and
maintaining a conducive work environment and optimizing human and
organizational efficiency.
• Industrial-organizational psychologists perform a wide variety of
tasks, including studying worker attitude and behaviour, evaluating
companies, and conducting leadership trainings.

185. • Scope of Industrial-organizational psychology
• Industrial and organizational psychologists work in four main
contexts:
• Academia
• Government
• Consulting firms
• and business
• Most I-O psychologists have a master’s or doctorate degree.
• The field of I-O psychology can be divided into three broad areas

186. 1. Industrial psychology
It is concerned with describing job requirements and assessing
individuals for their ability to meet those requirements.
In addition, once employees are hired, industrial psychology studies and
develops ways to train, evaluate, and respond to those evaluations.
As a consequence of its concern for candidate characteristics, industrial
psychology must also consider issues of legality regarding
discrimination in hiring.

187. 2. Organizational psychology
• It is a discipline interested in how the relationships among employees
affect those employees and the performance of a business.
• This includes studying worker satisfaction, motivation, and
commitment.
• This field also studies management, leadership, and organizational
culture, as well as how an organization’s structures, management and
leadership styles, social norms, and role expectations affect individual
behavior.
• As a result of its interest in worker wellbeing and relationships,
organizational psychology also considers the subjects of harassment,
including sexual harassment, and workplace violence.

188. 3. Human factors psychology
• It is the study of how workers interact with the tools of work and how
to design those tools to optimize workers’ productivity, safety, and
health.
• These studies can involve interactions as straightforward as the fit of a
desk, chair, and computer to a human having to sit on the chair at the
desk using the computer for several hours each day.
• They can also include the examination of how humans interact with
complex displays and their ability to interpret them accurately and
quickly.
• In Europe, this field is referred to as ergonomics.

189. Goals Of I-O Psychology
• Increase work productivity
• Design safe work environment
• Train new employees
• Help organize the company’s management structure
• Study workplace relations, attitudes & behaviors
• Promote job satisfaction & mental wellness among employees
• Recommend changes in organizational processes- hiring practices,
training, management, employee feedback.
• Influence overall behavior of workplace.

190. Areas of Industrial/ Organizational (I-O) Psychology
• The following constitute the main subject areas of
industrial/organizational psychology
1.Employee selection
Selection & Placement
Aptitude & Motives
2. Employee training and development
3. Employee satisfaction and work-life
Principles of Mental Health Promotional Schemes
Attitude & Morale
Motivation

191. 4. Performance management
• Wages & Salary Administration
5. Organizational development and management
• Human Relations
• Accident Prevention
6. Improving Customer Service

192. 1. Employee selection
• Industrial psychologists assist the human resources
department with the development of recruitment process and
the selection of personnel.
• This includes the development of job announcements,
defining key qualifications, and developing selection
assessments.

193. 2. Employee training and development.
• Industrial psychologists perform job analyses whereby the skills and
abilities necessary to perform a specific job effectively are determined.
• The information and insights gained from these analyses are used to
develop and evaluate employee skills development and training
programs
• People are the most important asset in any kind of business, so it’s no
surprise that human resources are a focal point when it comes to
optimization.
• This includes adjusting job responsibilities to better match individual
abilities and pushing for ongoing training or development
opportunities to benefit all parties involved.

194. 3. Employee satisfaction and work-life.
• This area of industrial psychology is concerned employee
with satisfaction, motivation, health, safety, and well-being.
• In this respect, the role of the industrial psychologist is to
evaluate employees' well-being and happiness at work and find
ways to improve the work environment, and implement work-life
balance programs, if necessary.

195. 4. Performance management.
• Industrial psychologists help organizations with the measurement and
management of employee performance by developing and conducting
performance assessments, identifying skill gap, and providing
feedback and recommendations.
• The information gained from these assessments is often used to inform
decisions regarding compensation and promotions.

196. 5. Organizational development and management.
• As a discipline within the field of psychology, IO professionals apply
their skills to enhance the structure of an organization from top to
bottom.
• This can include coaching for people in leadership positions,
broadening avenues of interdepartmental communication and
establishing clear chains of authority to improve overall cohesion,
according to the American Psychological Association.

197. 6. Improving Customer Service
• Company leaders and employees aren’t the only people that IO
psychologists worry about.
• Customer satisfaction is a decisive factor in the success and survival of a
company, so ensuring a positive and rewarding experience for consumers
is one of their primary responsibilities.
• Psychologists leverage their understanding of business and human
behavior to reduce elements of friction between products and their users,
as well as creating a more positive impression during interactions with
company personnel.