Alternatives magazine - Issue 18 - All about nuclear fuel

2. CONTENTS
EDITORIAL
FEATURE BY NOBUO TANAKA,
Executive Director,
ALL ABOUT International Energy Agency
(IEA)
NUCLEAR FUEL
04 10 WE NEED AN ENERGY
REVOLUTION
VIEWPOINT
Europe: roadmap
Rising energy demand, declining natural resources, the threat of greenhouse gases… for a single energy market
I
Europe’s energy market is not unified… yet. A lot of standards
it’s not easy to achieve a balance, and yet these vital issues must be resolved. The n the new edition of Energy Technology Perspectives, 2008, the
and procedures differ from one country to the next and IEA focuses on ways to cut CO2 emissions in half by 2050.
nuclear revival in a number of countries may be the beginning of a solution. This is there are still not enough grid interconnections. How can
Improving energy efficiency is the first step and results in
these problems be overcome to create a true European
a good time to take a closer look at this industry and to learn more about the many immediate cost savings. The second step is to reduce emis-
energy market? Jean-Marie Chevalier, co-author of a report
sions from power generation. In fact, this is a sector that
on this issue for the French Economic and Social Council,
“lives” of nuclear fuel. would need to be completely “decarbonized”. Given the growing
shares his view.
demand for electricity, this would mean that 38 coal-fired plants and
20 gas-fired plants would have to be equipped with a carbon capture
and storage system (CSS) each year from 2010 to 2050. Beyond that,
we would have to build 26 nuclear power plants per year as well as
15
17,000 wind turbines. And in addition to all this, we would need to
✔ Cover
12
reduce the carbon intensity of the transportation sector eightfold.
Nuclear This last objective is most certainly the costliest and most complex,
fuel pellets,
due to very strong growth and limited potential for improvement,
Romans (France) PERSPECTIVES
(
( based mostly on existing technologies.
Energy and climate:
DECODING
V The investment required to bring about such change is gigantic.
Capturing and storing C02 Brussels plan put to the test
Based on current energy use, our preliminary assessment puts it at
alternatives It’s a promising way to fighting global In early 2008, the European Commission presented its
50 billion dollars. The costs for “decarbonization”, which would be
warming: recovering carbon dioxide gas produced by highly ambitious plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
2nd quarter 2008
50 dollars per metric ton of CO2 in the energy sector, would rise to
industry and burying it underground. The processes Two stumbling blocks stand in the way: industry’s obvious
Publication Manager: Michel-Hubert Jamard.
200 or even 500 dollars per ton to achieve real improvement in the
are technically complex… and still expensive.
Editors: Thierry Piérard, Virginie Lepetit. reluctance, and the unanswered but crucial question of
Photos: Taillat, Lesage, Geoffray, Pauquet/ transportation sector. On top of that, it would require aggressive
An in-depth analysis. how to fund the proposed measures.
AREVA (couv., p. 4, 6, 7, 9), OCDE/AIE (p. 3),
political action and technological breakthroughs on an unprece-
M. Bennett Kress & Associates (p. 9), 4 Vents (p. 9),
dented scale. This would trigger a new energy revolution that would
Franck Beloncle (p. 10), StatoilHydro (p. 14),
D. Gys/Réa (p. 15), C. Van Der Eecken/Réa (p. 16), radically transform the way we produce and use energy. ■
19
18
IN BRIEF KIOSK A selection of books and
Caccuri/Contrasto-Réa (p. 16), Studio Pons/
Photononstop (p. 17), CERN (p. 18), J. Rezac/Réa (p. 20). Research, environment, transportation: websites for more information on
Illustrations: Mr Suprême (p. 11), A. Dagan (p. 12).
energy news clippings from Alternatives. the topics discussed in this issue.
: 7951
Design and production:
www.areva.com
The opinions expressed by the authors of articles in this magazine are
their sole responsibility and do not necessarily reflect AREVA’s opinions.
ISSN 1637-2603
In accordance with the French law of January 6, 1978 on Data
Processing and Civil Liberties, as amended by the law of August 6, 2004,
AT A GLANCE
any person has the right to request the correction or deletion of his or her
60% 2012 2.3 MW
personal data. This right may be exercised by letter posted to T.M.S.
Paper (novatech gloss) certified from mixed FSC and elemental chlorine-
This is how much Italy depends on natural gas for its electric power generation. By this date, the energy efficiency of real estate offered for This is the generating capacity of the first floating wind turbine, to be
free pulp, ISO 9706, ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, as per EC directive
sale in classified advertisements must be disclosed in France. built next year off the coast of Norway by the Norwegian oil company
98/638 on heavy metals content and EEC standard 89/109 regarding In May, Italian Minister of Economic Development Claudio Scajola announced that his country
contact with food. Environmentally friendly ink (100% plant-based).
StatoilHydro. Offshore wind turbines already exist in many places around the
will build new-generation nuclear power plants to increase its energy independence and Buildings are the biggest consumers of energy in France. They
© 2008 AREVACOM
“produce energy on a large scale safely, economically and in an environmentally-friendly represent 42.5% of total energy consumption and generate globe, but they are all anchored to the ocean floor. Floating wind turbines can
Energy is our future, manner.” Back in 1987, the country had renounced nuclear power in a referendum. 23% of the country’s CO2 emissions. be moved easily to deeper waters, where the wind is often stronger.
don’t waste it!

3. FEATURE An overview of challenges tied to energy
The demand for energy continues to rise while natural resources are depleted
day after day and the planet chokes on greenhouse gas emissions. It’s not
easy to strike a balance, yet these issues must be resolved. The nuclear
revival in a number of countries may be the beginning of a solution. This is
a good time to take a closer look at this industry and learn about the different
“lives” of nuclear fuel.
W
orld demand for tion operations are performed to convert
Three countries control 60% of
energy is set to the natural uranium into uranium oxide
the world’s uranium production
increase under the (U3O8). The ore is crushed and dissolved in
MAIN URANIUM PRODUCING COUNTRIES
combined pres- sulfuric acid, producing a yellow powder
ALL ABOUT
(production in metric tons)
sures of population called yellow cake or uranium concentrate,
growth, economic which is about 80% uranium. Ranking Country Production %
development and Yellow cake still contains a variety of impu- 1 Canada 9,481 23%
more widespread access to energy. Nu- rities and cannot be used in that form. It is 2 Australia 8,611 21%
clear power is one of the solutions that therefore purified during processing to 3 Kazakhstan 6,637 16%
NUCLEAR FUEL
can help meet our needs without convert the uranium into uranium hexaflu- 4 Russia 3,413 8%
greenhouse gas emissions. More often oride (UF6). 5 Niger 3,155 8%
than not, nuclear energy is discussed 6 Namibia 2,881 7%
7 Uzbekistan 2,300 5%
only in terms of nuclear reactors or New deposits to be mined
8 United States 1,800 4%
waste, but these are just two links in a According to the Nuclear Energy Agency
9 China 950 2%
long chain. Nuclear power is organized (NEA), annual world demand for uranium
10 Ukraine 900 2%
around the two main phases of the fuel came to 67,320 metric tons as of January 1,
Total Top 10 40,128 95%
cycle, the front end and the back end, 2005. World supply, at a little less than two
which occur before and after power is thirds of consumption, is inadequate. New Other 1,572 4%
generated in the reactor. deposits will have to be brought into produc- Word production 41,700 100%
tion to replace depleted inventories and meet
1. Uranium mining Source: AREVA 2007.
growing demand.
and conversion Resources are classified based on the likeli-
Uranium can be extracted from open pit or hood of recovery. Already identified re- at the current rate of consumption. In addi-
underground mines. In most instances, the sources are classified as “reasonably as- tion, the OECD and the IAEA distinguish
rock contains very little ore. The concen- sured” or “inferred”. These are deposits that conventional resources that have not yet
tration of natural uranium in the ore is in have been discovered, characterized and been discovered (“prognosticated” and/or
the range of 0.2% to 2%. It can be as high properly evaluated. They were estimated at “speculative” resources), estimated at
as 14% in a few exceptionally high-grade around 15 million metric tons as of January 10 million tons.
mines in Canada. A number of concentra- 1, 2005, or more than 200 years of supply The level of reserves depends on the price
one is willing to pay to recover them. More
deposits can be economically mined now
91 new reactors that the price of uranium has risen signifi-
cantly, going from 19 dollars per kilogram at
planned or under construction
the end of 2001 to almost 300 dollars per kilo-
As of the end of 2006, 438 reactors were connect- gram at the end of 2007, a fifteen-fold in-
(PWR). The water in the primary cooling system,
ed to the grid in 31 countries, representing 371 GW which comes into contact with the fuel cladding, is crease.
in installed capacity. Another 29 reactors were under kept under pressure to prevent boiling. The recovered
construction as of that same date, and 62 reactors heat is transferred to a secondary cooling system,
Evenly distributed reserves
had been ordered or were planned. The world market which produces steam. The steam powers a turbine,
Unlike oil and gas, which are unevenly
is dominated by light water reactors (LWR). There are which drives the turbo-generator that generates
distributed, with 70% of all oil reserves
✔ Yellow cake: the first product two major types of light water reactors: boiling electricity. The water from the secondary cooling
from uranium ore processing and 40% of all natural gas reserves located
water reactors (BWR) and pressurized water reactors system is condensed, cooled and recycled.
After crushing and grinding, uranium
in the Middle East, uranium reserves
ore undergoes a series of chemical
processes to increase the uranium
04 05
content to 80%. The resulting product
is called “yellow cake”.
/ ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

4. FEATURE
are relatively evenly distributed through- time, whereas the quantity of fission products
out the world, significantly reducing the increases. The fuel becomes less and less re-
geopolitical risk for operators of nuclear active until it finally stops producing energy.
power plants. The industrialized countries The used fuel must then be replaced with
of the OECD, the main users of nuclear fresh fuel.
power, possess about 40% of the world’s Used fuel treatment consists in separating re-
uranium reserves. The bulk of the reserves cyclable uranium and plutonium from final
are located in Australia (23% of total waste, which is packaged for disposal. For
world reserves), Kazakhstan (18.5%), every 100 kilograms of used fuel, 95 kilograms
Canada (9.5%), South Africa (8.6%), the of uranium and 1 kilogram of plutonium are
United States (7.5%), Russia (5.8%), recovered through treatment. The rest consists
Namibia (5.6%) and Niger (5%). of fission products and minor actinides, both
of which are final waste and will be vitrified.
2. Uranium enrichment Some of the uranium recovered from used 2 3
and fuel fabrication fuel treatment is recycled into fresh fuel; the
1
Natural uranium is a mixture of two iso- rest is stored. Plutonium is used to fabricate
topes, or atoms: U238 and U235, in the pro- another type of fuel called MOX, a mixture of
4
Nuclear fuel’s
portion of 99.3% and 0.7% respectively. uranium and plutonium oxides (see “Zoom”,
Only uranium 235 is easily susceptible to page 7). For countries that use this approach,
eight lives
the fission reaction that generates energy treatment and recycling increase energy inde-
in the core of a nuclear reactor. Light water pendence by using the energy potential of the
1. Uranium mining
reactors, representing 85% of all reactors recycled uranium and plutonium and con- Somair open pit mine (Niger)
worldwide, require uranium enriched in serving fresh uranium resources. These 2. Uranium conversion
UF4 to UF6 conversion plant, Tricastin (France)
U235 to operate. Enrichment is the process stages of the fuel cycle also reduce the vol-
3. Uranium enrichment by gaseous diffusion
used to raise the proportion of U235 from ume and radioactivity of the used fuel. With Georges Besse plant, Tricastin (France)
3 to 5%. demand rising faster than supply, the pres- 4. Fuel fabrication
Visual inspection of a fuel assembly, Romans (France)
sures on the uranium market are growing. Al-
5. Reactor loading
Continually evolving technologies though uranium prices have dropped in re- Civeaux nuclear power plant (France)
Two enrichment technologies are used today: cent months, this was preceded by four years 6. Used fuel treatment
Used fuel storage pool, La Hague plant (France)
gaseous diffusion and ultracentrifugation (see of continuous price increases. The price out- 7. MOX fuel fabrication
“word for word”, page 9). France has used the look is still on an upward trend. In light of Sorting pellets at the Melox plant (France)
8. Vitrification of final waste
gaseous diffusion process since 1978. This this situation, a number of major countries
Glass pouring in a radioactive waste
8
process consumes large amounts of electricity have begun to commit to fuel treatment and vitrification facility
7
and is being replaced by ultracentrifugation recycling, or are at least considering it.
technology, which consumes 50 times less. Pro-
5
duction is slated to begin in the first half of 2009
ZOOM
at AREVA’s Georges Besse II enrichment plant.
The unique cost structure
Enriched uranium is produced in gaseous
From plutonium to MOX
of nuclear power
form (UF6). It is then converted into a solid
Plutonium is an inevitable by-product
material (U02) and shaped into pellets, which
of nuclear reactions in a reactor fed with
Fossil fuel plants are very susceptible
are inserted into long metal tubes or “fuel would remain well below 10% of the total
low-enriched uranium. While it is responsible
to changes in the cost of fuel.
rods”. The fuel rods are bundled together and kilowatt-hour cost. Capital expenditures,
for most of the toxicity of used fuel, plutonium
Conversely, changes in uranium prices
held in place with spacer grids to form a fuel including dismantling expenses, repre- also contains a great deal of potential energy.
have little impact on the cost of nuclear
assembly. The assemblies are arranged side sent approximately 60% of the kilowatt- Mixed oxide fuel, or MOX, is a mixture of about
generated electricity. In fact, the price
by side inside the reactor vessel according to hour cost for nuclear power generation 93% depleted uranium powder and 7%
a predetermined, usually cylindrical configu- of fuel has little effect on the economic in light water reactors. Operating and plutonium oxide powder. In France, twenty
of the twenty-eight 900 MW reactors connected
ration. Together, these assemblies form the re- model for nuclear power. According to the maintenance expenses average about
to the grid operate with a fuel core that is 30%
actor core. Lappeenranta University of Technology 20% of the total and fuel cycle expenses
MOX. There are only two MOX fuel fabrication
in Finland, fuel represents about 7% of account for the remaining 20%. Of the lat-
plants in the world: AREVA’s Melox plant at the
3. Recycling the cost of nuclear power, versus 70% for ter, 90% of the expenses relate to the Marcoule site, and the Sellafield plant operated
6
The fuel assemblies release energy in the re- natural gas and 55% for coal. Even at front end of the fuel cycle and 10% to the by BNFL/BNG in Great Britain. A plant is also
actor through the fission of atomic nuclei. The 40 dollars per pound of uranium, fuel costs back end. scheduled to be built at the Rokkasho-Mura
proportion of fissile atoms decreases over site in Japan.
07
06 / ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

5. FEATURE
EXPERT OPINION
DR DOROTHY R. DAVIDSON
The French example, which has already
✔ Used fuel
Dr Dorothy R. Davidson 1, the nuclear fuel specialist, been transposed to Japan, where a plant al- shipping cask.
is in charge of relations with the US Department of
most identical to AREVA’s La Hague plant
Energy (DOE) as project manager of the International
was inaugurated in 2005, will be reproduced
Nuclear Recycling Alliance (INRA), which is conducting
in the coming years. In 2007, the United
studies on the closing of the fuel cycle in the
States and China each decided to build and
United States.
operate a recycling plant.
4. Waste management
WHAT IS THE FUTURE of the ✔ Andra’s low andcenter in Aube
medium level
waste disposal
The future of used fuel is a subject of ongoing
(France)
debate, with two opposing strategies. In one,
fuel cycle in the United States? The site receives all short-
used fuel is considered final waste. This lived low and medium level
waste. It will stop accepting
“once-through” or “open” fuel cycle option waste in around 2050.
has been chosen by countries such as Sweden,
Alternatives: What with a view to sustainable • The size of the recycling
Finland, Spain and Canada. In the other, used
characterizes the nuclear development. facilities will depend on the
ZOOM
fuel is treated to recover recyclable materials, in steel drums. When the radioactivity is retrievable disposal in deep geologic forma-
fuel cycle in the United demand for treatment of used
which make up 96% of the fuel. This is the higher, the waste is encapsulated in concrete tions as the baseline solution. A new law
What is INRA’s contribution
States? light water reactor fuel and
Measuring radiotoxicity
“closed” fuel cycle. France and other coun- or resins and isolated in concrete containers. should be adopted by 2015 at the latest to
to the GNEP program? sodium cooled reactor fuel.
Dorothy R. Davidson:
In France, approximately 1 kilogram of radioactive
tries, including Japan, the United Kingdom, define the conditions for retrievability.
D. R. Davidson: INRA is a • The industry has the capac-
Nuclear power currently gen-
waste is produced per person per year. Of this,
group of companies2 that ity to build sodium cooled Russia and China, treat their used fuel. A wealth of options While identifying deep geological disposal
erates 20% of the electricity in
990 grams will return to natural radioactivity levels
joined together to propose the reactors, but further R&D
the United States and the vast The United States had abandoned treat- Definitive solutions have already been im- as the preferred solution, the law of 2006
in less than 300 years, but 10 grams will remain
best nuclear technologies must demonstrate their
majority of the power plants ment 25 years ago, but is showing renewed plemented in France for very low level waste calls for an in-depth examination of the highly radiotoxic for a very long time. A French family
from the United States, France profitability compared with
should continue to operate interest now. and short-lived low or medium level waste. other two possible solutions. One involves of four people that uses nuclear-generated electricity
and Japan to the US govern- light water reactors.
for several decades more. We The classification of waste is fairly complex These types of waste are stored above the storage of the waste above or below for 25 years would have generated 12 cm3 of high
ment. We have almost 50 • International R&D programs
expect another 30 or so reac-
(see table). There are five categories of ground at two sites, one in the Aube Depart- ground, while in the other the waste’s ra- level, long-lived waste.
years of experience in manag- can be instrumental in
tors to be built. The nuclear
waste, based on radioactivity and half life. ment (Champagne-Ardenne region) and one dioactivity is reduced through separation
ing the commercial fuel cycle accelerating the development
industry is searching for the
Very low level waste (VLLW) and short-lived in the Manche Department (Normandy). and transmutation (see “word for word” be-
in accordance with IAEA3 of sodium cooled reactors.
best way to manage used fuel ISOTOPE:
word for word
low or medium level waste represent more The debate mainly concerns the long term low). From uranium ore mining to used fuel
and Euratom regulations. • It is desirable for the United
in the future, both in terms An element whose atoms have the same
than 90% of the waste produced in France management of long-lived, highly radioac- management and recycling, each step of the number of electrons and protons, but a
We also benefit from 40 years States to establish a regulatory
of economics and in terms of
different number of neutrons.
since the beginning of its nuclear program. tive, non-recyclable waste. This waste in- fuel cycle is a complete and complex indus-
of expertise in the design and agency to oversee the strategy
safety. This is why the Depart-
These categories include waste from ore pro- cludes the fuel cladding, untreated used fuel try unto itself. The entire cycle takes several
construction of light water for used fuel management.
ment of Energy asked industry
OPEN CYCLE/CLOSED CYCLE:
reactors and sodium cooled • A proven model for
to define the conditions for an cessing (metal scrap, rubble, etc.) and waste and fission products (see “Zoom”, opposite). decades from beginning to end. While other The fuel cycle is said to be “closed” when
reactors. This expertise forms privately funded fuel recycling
integrated fuel management from the maintenance and operation of nu- The French Law of June 28, 2006 indicates aspects of the nuclear industry are better it includes used fuel treatment and recycling
the basis of studies for the already exists and offers
strategy that would satisfy of fissile materials. It is said to be “open”
clear power plants. When the radioactivity of that the three avenues for research stipu- known, time is also one of the distinctive
design, funding and construc- appropriate guarantees. or “once-through” when the used fuel is sent
growing worldwide demand the short-lived low and medium level waste lated in the Waste Act of 1991 (the “Bataille features of this sustainable, reliable and
directly to disposal as waste.
tion scheduling of two major As a follow-up to this first
for energy safely and reliably CO2-free source of energy. ■
is low, the waste is compacted and packaged Law”) are complementary, but designates
facilities: the Consolidated phase, INRA will continue
while protecting the environ-
SEPARATION-TRANSMUTATION:
Fuel Treatment Center (CFTC) to assess the recycling busi-
ment. Today, the fuel cycle in The purpose of separation is to recover fission
and the Advanced Recycling ness model, improvements
the United States is character-
@
products and minor actinides. The latter are
Websites for more information
More than 90% of waste is very low level or short-lived
Reactor (ARR), a next-genera- to be made to the ARR, and
ized by on-site storage of used radioactive elements named after actinium,
on nuclear power:
tion reactor to convert long- the operating license process
fuel and geologic disposal of a heavy metal with relatively similar chemical
•International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
WASTE VOLUMES PRODUCED IN FRANCE SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM IN 1974
www.iaea.org
lived waste into short-lived for the ARR and for a recy- properties. Transmutation occurs when the
final waste. This is why the
cling center. ■ heavy nuclei of minor actinides are bombarded
• National radioactive waste management agency
waste while generating power.
President initiated the Global
of France (Andra): www.andra.fr
Waste category Volume % % with neutrons and split, or fission, into lighter
Nuclear Energy Partnership • French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA):
of total volume of radioactivity nuclei.
Where does this program
(GNEP), whose goal is to www.cea.fr
stand today?
meet the growing demand for 108,219 m3
Very low level 11.1% -0 •www.laradioactivité.com: this site explains
˜ ULTRACENTRIFUGATION:
1. Dr. Davidson is also Vice President, radioactivity very simply, from its discovery
D. R. Davidson: With INRA,
energy, reduce future volumes Low and medium level In this process, a series of cylinders or
Nuclear Energy, AREVA, Inc.
to its numerous applications (Andra).
we have reached the following 2. AREVA, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
of used fuel and limit the risk “bowls” are lined up. They separate the
778,322 m3
– short-lived 79.6% 0.07%
(MHI), Japan Nuclear Fuel Limited (JNFL), • French Nuclear Energy Society (SFEN): uranium hexafluoride molecules by spinning
conclusions:
of proliferation. Another goal URS Washington Division, Babcock & Wilcox Low level www.sfen.org
Technical Services and Battelle Energy at very high speed. The heavier particles
• The recycling technology
of GNEP is to expand interna- 44,559 m3
– long-lived 4.5% 0.01% • World Nuclear Association:
Technology.
containing the U238 isotope are projected to
www.world-nuclear.org
allowing us to avoid separat- 3. International Atomic Energy Agency.
tional cooperation for the safe Medium level the walls of the cylinder. The lighter molecules
ing pure plutonium is mature A site opposed to the development
and peaceful use of nuclear 45,359 m3
– long-lived 4.6% 3.87% containing the U235 isotope remain near the
of nuclear power:
and available.
power around the world, center. The proportion of light, radioactive
High level
•Greenpeace: www.greenpeace.org molecules increases from one cylinder to the
1,639 m3
– long-lived 0.2% 96.05%
next, thus enriching the gas.
Source: Andra 2004.
09
08 / ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/