2. SOME GENERAL ADVICE
1. An essay should have an argument.
2. Thesis or hypothesis.
3. Essay’s organization should be designed to present your argument clearly and persuasively. (The order in which you
discovered the parts of your argument is seldom an effective order for presenting it to a reader.)
4. Successful methods of composing an essay:
-They start writing early, because they use writing not simply to transcribe what they have already discovered but as
a means of exploration and discovery.
-They write what seems readiest to be written.
-They keep the essay’s overall purpose and organization in mind, amending them as drafting proceeds. Something
like an “outline” constantly and consciously evolves sketchy reminders to oneself.
-They revise extensively.
-Once they have a fairly complete and well-organized draft, they revise sentences, with special attention to
transitions.
3. HOW TO ORGANIZE AN ESSAY
The best time to think about how to organize your paper is during the pre-writing stage, not the writing or revising stage.
When you begin planning, ask the following questions: What type of essay am I going to be writing? Does it belong to a specific genre?
Avoid common pitfalls by remembering this simple principle: the structure of an essay should not be determined by the structure of its source
material.
Most essay outlines will never be handed in. They are meant to serve you and no one else.
When you have completed your first draft, and you think your paper can be better organized, consider using a reverse outline. Reverse outlines
are simple to create. Just read through your essay, and every time you make a new point, summarize it in the margin. If the essay is reasonably
well-organized, you should have one point in the margin for each paragraph, and your points read out in order should form a coherent
argument.
Planning provides the following advantages:
helps you to produce a logical and orderly argument that your readers can follow
helps you to produce an economical paper by allowing you to spot repetition
helps you to produce a thorough paper by making it easier for you to notice whether you have left anything out
makes drafting the paper easier by allowing you to concentrate on writing issues such as grammar, word choice, and clarity
4. PARAGRAPHS
- Probably the most effective way to achieve paragraph
unity is to express the central idea of the paragraph in a
topic sentence. A topic sentence has a specific main
point.
- In academic writing, the topic sentence nearly always
works best at the beginning of a paragraph so that the
reader knows what to expect.
5. HOW TO DEVELOP A PARAGRAPH
- Often, the body paragraph demonstrates and develops your topic sentence through an ordered, logical progression of
ideas. There are a number of useful techniques for expanding on topic sentences and developing your ideas in a
paragraph. Illustration in a paragraph supports a general statement by means of examples, details, or relevant quotations.
- The definition paragraph does exactly what you would expect: it defines a term, often by drawing distinctions between the
term and other related ones.
- The analysis or classification paragraph develops a topic by distinguishing its component parts and discussing each of
these parts separately.
- A comparison or a contrast paragraph zeroes in on a key similarity or difference between, for instance, two sources,
positions, or ideas. Decide whether to deal only with similarities or only with differences, or to cover both. Also, keep in
mind that a single comparison can be spread out over two separate paragraphs.
- A qualification paragraph acknowledges that what you previously asserted is not absolutely true or always applicable.
- The process paragraph involves a straightforward step-by-step description. Process description often follows a
chronological sequence.
6. HOW TO FLOW IDEAS IN A PARAGRAPH
The best overall strategy to enhance flow within a paragraph is to show connections.
-Deliberate repetition of keywords helps. Reiterating the focus of your analysis by repeating
key words or synonyms for key words enhances the overall flow of the paragraph.
-Strategic use of pronouns such as it, they, and this keeps the focus on the ideas announced
at the beginning of the paragraph—as long as they are clearly linked to specific nouns.
-Specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for pulling ideas together. But don’t just
sprinkle them into your sentences—use them to support your logic. Examples: linking words.
7. TOPIC SENTENCES
A topic sentence states the main point of a paragraph: it
serves as a mini-thesis for the paragraph.
- Topics sentences help protect your readers from confusion
by guiding them through the argument.
- Topic sentences usually appear at the very beginning of
paragraphs.
8. READING AS SOURCE
A more important skill is to read with comprehension and memory. Here are some tips on reading different material in
appropriate ways. They will help you read more effectively.
TEXTBOOKS
-Mark only key passages in the text. Use symbols to show different kinds of points. It’s worthwhile to make brief summarizing
notes in your own words. That forces you to process the material in your own mind, and it provides a guide for later review.
PRIMARY SOURCES
-Read through each literary work or historical document, paying attention to your own responses and questions.
RESEARCH READINGS
In going through sources for a research essay, you are looking for facts to support or modify your original view of the topic, and
for others’ opinions to bolster and to challenge your own.
9. SKIMMING AND SCANNING
By first skimming a text, you can get a sense of its overall logical progression. Skimming can also help you make decisions
about where to place your greatest focus when you have limited time for your reading.
1. Read carefully the introductory paragraph, or perhaps the first two paragraphs. As yourself what the focus of the text
appears to be, and try to predict the direction of the coming explanations or arguments.
2. Read carefully the first one or two sentences of each paragraph, as well as the concluding sentence or sentences.
3. In between these opening and closing sentences, keep your eyes moving and try to avoid looking up unfamiliar words
or terminology. Your goal is to pick up the larger concepts and something of the overall pattern and significance of the
text.
4. Read carefully the concluding paragraph or paragraphs. What does the author’s overall purpose seem to be?
Remember that you may be mistaken, so be prepared to modify your answer.
5. Finally, return to the beginning and read through the text carefully, noting the complexities you missed in your
skimming and filling in the gaps in your understanding. Think about your purpose in reading this text and what you
need to retain from it, and adjust your focus accordingly. Look up the terms you need to know, or unfamiliar words that
appear several times.
SCANNING: is skimming with a more tightly focused purpose.
10. SUMMARIZING
Summarizing a text, or distilling its essential concepts into a paragraph or two.
A summary has two aims:
a)- to reproduce the overarching ideas in a text, identifying the general concepts that run through the entire piece
b)- to express these overarching ideas using precise, specific language.
Some methods for summarizing:
1. Include the title and identify the author in your first sentence.
2. The first sentence or two of your summary should contain the author’s thesis, or central concept, stated in your own
words.
3. When summarizing a longer article, try to see how the various stages in the explanation or argument are built up in
groups of related paragraphs.
4. Omit ideas that are not really central to the text.
5. In general, omit minor details and specific examples.
6. Avoid writing opinions or personal responses in your summaries
11. TAKING NOTES FROM RESEARCH READING
If you take notes efficiently, you can read with more understanding and also save time
and frustration when you come to write your paper. These are three main principles:
-KNOW WHAT KIND OF IDEAS YOU NEED TO RECORD: If you take notes efficiently,
you can read with more understanding and also save time and frustration when you come to
write your paper. These are three main principles
-DON’T WRITE DOWN TO MUCH: Your essay must be an expression of your own thinking,
not a patchwork of borrowed ideas.
-LEVEL YOUR NOTES INTELLIGENTLY: Whether you use cards or pages for note-taking,
take notes in a way that allows for later use.
12. RESEARCH USING THE INTERNET
A few basic guidelines to remember:
Don’t rely exclusively on Net resources.
Narrow your research topic before logging on.
Know your subject directories and search engines.
Keep a detailed record of sites you visit and the sites you use.
Double-check all URLs that you put in your paper.
13. PREVIEWING
Spend a few minutes previewing a text before starting to read, in order to orient yourself toward what is important for you in this reading.
Here is a basic method which can be applied to many texts:
1. Read the title. Titles are chosen to orient the reader and should give a sense of the central concepts in the text.
2. Think about the subject matter: Have you read about this topic before? Where and when? What do you already know about it, or
what might you guess?
3. Who wrote this text? What information do you have about this author?
4. Where was this text originally published? What type of publication is this, and where does it fit into this field of study? Who would be
the audience for this kind of writing?
5. When was this text originally published? What is the significance of this time period in this field of study? Is the text historical?
Current? Or is it possibly outdated?
6. Read the chapter titles or the headings that break up the chapter or article. What seems to be the general progression of ideas here?
7. Why has your professor assigned this text? Where does it fit into the course as a whole? What kinds of facts and ideas are you
expected to retain from this reading?
14. REVISE AND EDITING
Revising gives you the chance to preview your work on behalf of the eventual reader. Revision is much more than proofreading,
though in the final editing stage it involves some checking of details. Good revision and editing can transform a mediocre first
draft into an excellent final paper. It’s more work, but leads to real satisfaction when you find you’ve said what you wanted.
Revision may mean changing the shape and reasoning in your paper. It often means adding or deleting sentences and
paragraphs, shifting them around, and reshaping them as you go. Before dealing with details of style and language (editing), be
sure you have presented ideas that are clear and forceful. Make notes as you go through these questions, and stop after each
section to make the desired revisions.
QUESTIONS TO FULFILL THE INTENTION OF ASSIGNMENT:
Have you performed the kind of thinking the assignment sheet asked for (e.g., analyse, argue, compare, explore)
Have you written the genre of document ?
Have you used concepts and methods of reasoning discussed in the course?
Have you given adequate evidence for your argument or interpretation?
15. HOW TO AVOID WORDINESS AND IMPROVE
SPELLING
One of the most efficient ways to improve your writing is to edit it for conciseness. You may have been struggling to think ideas
through as you wrote, and piled up alternative wordings. Or you may have fallen into the habit of using more words than
necessary just to use up space. If you can let your original draft “cool down” a while, you will find it easy to recognize
unnecessary words and edit them out. Your reader will thank you! Here are some common patterns of wordiness, with sensible
things to do about them.
SPELLING
Use a good dictionary: An English dictionary designed for English language learners, such as Longman’s Dictionary of
Contemporary English or Oxford’s Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, can be very helpful for non-native speakers. These
dictionaries give more information and often many more examples of words in context to help students select and use words
appropriately.
Be consistent about using British or American spellings in your writing.
Use your computer spellchecker, but with caution.
16. TYPES OF WRITING
BOOK REVIEW OR ARTICLE CRITIQUE:An analytic or critical review of a book or article is not primarily a summary;
rather, it comments on and evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course.
LITERATURE REVIEW: An annotated bibliography gives an account of the research that has been done on a given topic. Like
any bibliography, an annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of research sources. In addition to bibliographic data, an annotated
bibliography provides a concise summary of each source and some assessment of its value or relevance. Depending on your assignment, an
annotated bibliography may be one stage in a larger research project, or it may be an independent project standing on its own.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: A literature review is an account of what has been published
on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers.
ABSTRACT: Abstracts are important because they give a first impression of the document that follows,
letting readers decide whether to continue reading and showing them what to look for if they do. Though some
abstracts only list the contents of the document, the most useful abstracts tell the reader more. An abstract
should represent as much as possible of the quantitative and qualitative information in the document, and also
reflect its reasoning.
17. MORE TYPES OF WRITING
COMPARATIVE ESSAY: A comparative essay asks that you compare at least two
(possibly more) items. These items will differ depending on the assignment. You might be
asked to compare
positions on an issue
theories
figures
texts
events
- Develop a list of differences and similarities
18. MORE TYPES OF WRITING
PHILOSOPHY ESSAY: Before you write a paper, though, you need to understand the course texts and
recommended readings. Philosophical works need to be read slowly and with focused attention. As you read,
ask yourself the following:
What philosophical question(s) is the author addressing?
What exactly is meant by key ideas or concepts in the text?
What arguments does the author make?
What theories does the author propose?
- Organize your ideas into a logical structure
- Show your understanding through clear and accurate exposition
- Critically evaluate a philosophical theory
- Develop your own answers to philosophical questions
19. WRITING IN SCIENCES
A science paper should be written in a clear and concise style, its paragraphs should be coherent,
and its ideas should be well organized. This handout focuses on the features of science writing that
distinguish it from other, non-scientific genres. Since some of these features may vary from subject
to subject, it focuses on those principles and conventions that are common to most areas of
science.
- All writers should be aware of their audience. But science writers need to be particularly aware
because readers of science-related writing can have very different levels of knowledge.
- In science papers they can be either fragments or full sentences, though usually they are
fragments.
- If you write a humanities essay in university, you will not be encouraged to use headings. The
opposite will be true of your science papers. Headings emphasize the systematic nature of
scientific enquiry. They also provide an excellent organizational tool, often relieving you of the
need to create smooth transitions between the main parts of your paper.
20. THE ACADEMIC PROPOSAL
Academic proposal should show your theoretical positioning and your relationship to past
work in the area.
An academic proposal is expected to contain these elements:
a rationale for the choice of topic, showing why it is important or useful within the concerns
of the discipline or course. It is sensible also to indicate the limitations of your aims.
a review of existing published work
an outline of your intended approach or methodology (with comparisons to the existing
published work), perhaps including costs, resources needed, and a timeline of when
you hope to get things done.
21. BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Hall, Jenny; Jerry, Plotnick. “Using Topic Sentences”. University of Toronto. May,
2017. http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/planning/topic-sentences/
-Silber, C.A. “Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing”. University of
Toronto. May, 2017. http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/general/general-advice/
--Plotnick, Jerry. “Organizing an Essay”. University of Toronto. May, 2017.
http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/planning/organizing/
--Procter, Margaret; Visvis, Vikky. “Paragraphs”. University of Toronto. May, 2017.
http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/planning/paragraphs/
