Design, development and implementation of blended learning

European Journal of Training and Development
“For us it was a learning experience”: Design, development and implementation of blended learning
Brown Onguko Lucy Jepchumba Petronilla Gaceri
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“For us it was a learning
experience”
Design, development and implementation
of blended learning
Brown Onguko
Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational Development – Eastern Africa,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Lucy Jepchumba
Mutuini Secondary School, Nairobi, Kenya, and
Petronilla Gaceri
Uthiru Secondary School, Nairobi, Kenya
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to share reflections of the three authors on the process of
instructional design and implementation of blended learning for teachers’ professional development
(PD) in rural western Kenya. It proposes reforms in provision of teachers’ professional development to
enable professional development providers to access specialized skills in instructional design (ID) and
blended learning.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper resulted from a design-based research including 12
entry and 12 exit interviews, observations of three face-to-face meetings of blended learning sessions
and ten classroom observations of teachers implementing new teaching approaches learned through
blended learning.
Findings – The paper provides insights into the authors’ experiences in this research. They shared
the following reflections: engagement in ID empowered them and they are confident that they can
engage in systematic instructional design on a larger scale; they gained technical knowledge and skills
in authoring content in HTML on eXe open source platform; uploading the content and processing
audio and video content was equally enthralling to them.
Research limitations/implications – Because of the chosen research approach, the research
results may lack generalisability. Therefore, researchers are encouraged to consider incorporating the
design-based research, instructional design and blended learning approaches used in this study while
conducting related research in their dissimilar contexts.
Practical implications – The paper includes implications for the design, development and
implementation of teachers’ professional development for challenging contexts as a contribution
towards achievement of both Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA).
Originality/value – This paper fulfils an identified need to study provision of professional
development for teachers who lack opportunities for professional development.
Keywords Blended learning, Challenging contexts, Instructional design, Professional development,
Design-based research, Learning styles, Learning methods, Kenya
Paper type Research paper
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm
Blended learning
615
Received 10 October 2012
Revised 11 January 2013
23 April 2013
Accepted 7 May 2013
European Journal of Training and
Development
Vol. 37 No. 7, 2013
pp. 615-634
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2046-9012
DOI 10.1108/EJTD-10-2012-0052

Introduction
Educational use of emerging information communication technologies (ICTs) such as
tablets and smart phones calls for new ways of engaging teachers and professional
development providers in delivery of professional development. Such emerging ICTs
are important platforms for teachers’ professional development. Teachers in
developing countries such as Kenya do not have much opportunity for professional
development (PD) after initial teacher preparation (Otienoh, 2010; Wanzare, 2007).
While some countries have clear policies on professional development requirements,
for teachers in Kenya there is no clear policy, for example, on number of PD hours
required per year.
To achieve requirements for professional development in some countries, the
educational authorities resort to various cost-effective approaches including use of ICT
to deliver PD. In one Education District in Canada, for example, an online professional
development program provides opportunities for teachers to develop their personal
growth plans that include goals and objectives based on assessment of professional
learning needs (Childs, 2004). After developing personal growth plans, teachers in the
district work towards their personal plans by accessing PD programs through an
online portal (Childs, 2004). Such opportunities are not available for teachers in Kenya
generally and specifically for rural teachers.
The research reported in this paper utilized appropriate technologies for teachers’
professional development in a rural school in western Kenya, who do not have such
opportunity. The authors of this paper: the first author being the researcher and the
second and third authors being teachers who offer PD, henceforth referred to as
professional development teachers (PDTs), designed and delivered the course.
The ADDIE process of systematic instructional design was the instructional design
framework used in the study. ADDIE is the five-stage instructional design framework
through the stages of analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation.
ADDIE continues to be an important model upon which instructional design processes
are based (Allen, 2006). The ADDIE model of instructional design is consequently used
in this paper as a systematic conceptual framework for presentation of our findings.
First, we share the research questions for the study.
Research questions
The main research question for the study was: how might professional development,
offered through a blended learning approach and delivered by appropriate
technologies, inform teaching practice in a challenging context in Kenya? The
subsidiary research questions were:
.
How might we design a course using a blended learning approach?
.
How might appropriate technologies assist in the delivery of professional
development via blended learning?
.
What support do teachers require for blended learning on appropriate
technologies?
.
How appropriate is blended learning for teachers in a rural setting?
In the following section, we focus on application of ADDIE, the conceptual framework
adopted for this paper followed by review of relevant literature.
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Conceptual framework
In designing learning content we followed the ADDIE process because of its systematic
approach through the design and implementation stages. ADDIE process involved
detailed analysis of the teachers and the school context. This was followed by design
and development of self-directed study content based on careful and systematic
articulation of the instructional objectives, and implementation of PD with teachers
making use of the study content to plan and implement their teaching. Evaluation was
an ongoing process through the stages.
The ADDIE framework as an instructional systems design (ISD) process emerged
out of the post-second world war research in the US military that aimed to find a more
effective way to create training programs (Allen, 2006). This instructional design
framework continues to be an important model as it provides guidelines upon which
instructional design processes are based (Molenda, 2003). In other words, as an original
instructional design model, other models have been developed based on the ADDIE
model. As Malachowski (2012) asserted, ADDIE was one of the first instructional
design models that is liked for its simplicity, ease of application and cyclic nature. It is
exactly for these reasons by Malachowski that the ADDIE framework was found
relevant for this study.
The instructional design process was a critical part of content development for this
study. Instructional design has been defined as “a systematic process that is employed
to develop education and training programs in a consistent and reliable fashion”
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p. 11).
Instructional design goes through the stages of analysis of the participants and the
context, design and development of study content to address the identified need,
followed by implementation and evaluation stages, thus completing the ADDIE
framework. In this study both the PDTs and teachers were interviewed during the
analysis stage to identify PD facilitation capacity and PD needs respectively.
Instructional design involved identification and preparation of the different resources
including readings (electronic documents), videos, audio recordings and authoring of
content in HyperText Markup Language (HTML) format. Implementation entailed
teachers’ self-directed study of content on tablets over a period of four weeks as they
planned and taught lessons and attended face-to-face meetings on three Saturdays. The
next section presents literature review.
Literature review
The literature reviewed in this section focuses on blended learning which is the core
theme of this paper is. First, clarification of the meaning of blended learning is followed
by review of literature on blended learning in Kenya.
Blended learning
Blended learning, according to some scholars, has been practiced in different
educational contexts for many years. These scholars argue that blended learning is not
a new idea, being an art that has been practiced by inspirational teachers for centuries
(Cross, 2006; Moore, 2006). Moore (2006) asserts that blending classroom and mediated
delivery of instruction at high school level can be traced to as far back as the 1920s in
the US. Blended learning approach could be identified in what was then known as
supervised correspondence study (Moore, 2006). Supervised correspondence study
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617

combined face-to-face learning, represented by the “supervision” component, with the
correspondence, paper-based print content. Print and postal mailing technologies
supported correspondence study of the 1920s. To further illustrate that blended
learning has been in practice for many years, Cross (2006) observed that his first grade
teacher used a “blend” of storytelling, song, recitation, reading aloud, flash cards,
poetry, and corporal punishment.
Blended learning is generally regarded as a combination of different training media
including technologies, activities and types of events, to create an optimum training
program for a specific audience (Bersin, 2004). Bersin further suggested that blended
learning is traditional instructor-led training being supplemented with other electronic
formats or vice versa. Based on Bersin’s broad definition of blended learning, it is
possible to categorize the “media” in both Cross’ experience in first grade and Moore’s
characterization of blended learning in the 1920s. The technologies include the print
correspondence learning material and flash cards; activities include storytelling,
recitation, and reading aloud; while types of events are, for example, song, and poetry.
Cross’ corporal punishment in our view is an unacceptable mode of punishment and
does not fit in the types of events category of blended learning.
It has been argued that there is no one generally accepted definition of blended
learning (Picciano, 2009). Picciano stated that there are many forms of blended learning
but a generally accepted taxonomy does not exist. Picciano identified a variety of terms
used synonymously to describe related learning approaches including blended, hybrid
or mixed mode. Picciano, however, went further and identified blended learning
broadly as “some nebulous combination of online and face-to-face instruction”
(Picciano, 2009, p. 8).
Garrison and Vaughan (2008) suggest blended learning has no consistent
recommendation concerning the balance of types of instruction being blended. They
define blended learning as the thoughtful fusion of face-to-face and online learning
experiences. They asserted both face-to-face oral communication and online written
communication are optimally integrated by blending the strengths of both into a
unique learning experience to create a harmonized context with the intended purpose.
The definition of blended learning by Picciano (2009) as highlighted above is
non-committal, and yet it is also limited by focusing on online experiences thus
potentially locks out other forms of blended learning possible in challenging contexts.
For example, in challenging contexts the online experience might not always be
possible due to lack of Internet and other infrastructure like electricity. On the other
hand, while Garrison and Vaughan’s definition is more persuasive and clearer than
Picciano’s, it emphasized online experience, which was definitely influenced by the
western context where they live and work. Perhaps blended learning should be defined
with consideration of the contextual realities as well, so that the available technology
options are considered in rolling out contextually relevant blended learning.
Consideration of forms of blended learning in Kenya may help elaborate on the
concept from a contextual perspective of this paper.
Blended learning in Kenya
Blended learning of various “blends” has been utilized in Kenya. For example, demand
for flexible delivery of university education caused Moi University through the
Department of Technology Education to establish degree level distance learning
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programs for teachers’ study during the school vacation (Simiyu and Macharia, 2008).
In their literature study, these researchers suggested that the blend in the programs
consisted of face-to-face instruction to teachers, combined with online access to course
content via communication channels such as email and discussion forums. From these
researchers’ views, the university set out to improve on delivery of a distance-learning
program by incorporating other modes of contact through online access on email and
discussion forums. This has been the process most institutions have gone through in
incorporating new technologies in learning, leading to what is blended learning today.
Another example of a blended learning is the course of Statistics in Applied
Climatology (SIAC) for meteorological staff in Kenya. This “blend” used an approach
where students learned through the Moodle virtual learning environment as well as on
compact disk (Janssens-Bevernage and Stern, 2006). This training program aimed at
enabling producers of climatic data to develop skills in analysis of historical records. In
the blended learning approach, it was assumed that the participants who did not have
access to the Internet but had access to a computer could feasibly study offline, with
content on compact disk and online at Internet cafe´s to participate in discussions and
submit assignments.
The blended learning approach in SIAC was limited to those with access to
computers for offline study and who could also access Internet cafe´s for online
communication. Such a program was viable in the urban and peri-urban locations in
Kenya. The SIAC program is relevant to the study in this paper because it was
implemented in challenging contexts, and like in this paper, the blend incorporated
offline content and face-to-face sessions.
The African Virtual University (AVU), which presents yet another approach to
blended learning, started by offering external internationally accredited programs
from North America via video link and the Internet to Africa, through a network of
learning centers and partner institutions. At the end of two years several challenges
emerged, among them: the approach was costly; there were difficulties in scaling up the
program to a wider audience; it was economically unviable; and did not lead to
significant skills transfer (Gunga and Ricketts, 2007).
On realizing the shortcomings identified above, the AVU center at Kenyatta
University in Kenya was redesigned so that students present themselves at the center
to study (Gunga and Ricketts, 2007). Rather than using only the virtual means of
learning delivery, they decided to blend with the residential face-to-face mode. This
redesign was necessary, as the earlier approach was not viable in a challenging context
with inadequate Internet connectivity and poor ICT infrastructure. The AVU scenario
best demonstrates the need to utilize appropriate technology solutions, such as those
used in the research in this paper. The views by these authors also speak to the
importance of blended learning as a viable option for improving delivery of education
in a challenging context.
Blended learning in Kenya has been mainly concentrated at higher education and
particularly in universities. The AVU presents an example of early evolution of some
form of blended learning starting in 1997 when the Kenyatta University AVU site was
established (Juma, 2006). According to Juma, AVU’s strategy was to provide a high
quality product, transfer skills from the collaborating universities in North America to
Africa and maximize access. Although as mentioned by Gunga and Ricketts, this did
Blended learning
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not happen, we are hopeful that after changing from wholly virtual learning to blended
learning it was possible to realize the initial aspirations.
Provision of high quality products and transfer of skills are important benefits of
blended learning where participants such as the PDTs who designed the course
referred to in this paper gained new skills in designing technology-mediated training
programs. But more importantly, teachers who were heavily loaded with teaching up
to 40 lessons per week were able to get quality PD content that was structured to guide
them through their planning for their lessons incorporating new teaching strategies
presented in the study content.
Blended learning was a delivery mode of choice in this study because it was felt that
it would provide teachers who were fully engaged throughout the five-day teaching
week with opportunity to improve on their practice by locating PD within their work
contexts in classrooms. They studied the content as they planned for their lessons,
implemented the teaching and learning strategies in their lessons and met face-to-face
with the PDTs on Saturdays when schools were closed for the weekend. This was the
best opportunity available to teachers who had not had professional development after
their initial training.
Blended learning in this paper is defined as a deliberate combination of self-directed
study of offline content deployed on tablets, with face-to-face meetings, moderated by
instructors. This definition takes into consideration access to offline PD content on
tablets, coupled with teachers’ face-to-face interactions with their peers and instructors,
aimed at both sharing success and finding solutions for challenges encountered during
self-directed study. Having elaborated on the understanding of blended learning, the
following section presents the methodology.
Methodology
The design-based research methodology in the study comprised a number of research
methods. The methods included ethnographic observations, qualitative interviews,
narratives and documentation of design artifacts. Two PDTs and ten teachers
participated in the study.
Narrative is a deeply human activity; according to Lewis (2012) because as human
beings we have a symbiotic relationship with story in that we are both informed by
story and formed by story. According to Sandelowski (1991), narrative research entails
stories that include a temporal ordering of events and an effort to make something out
of those events: to render, or to signify, the experiences of persons-in-flux in a
personally and culturally coherent, plausible manner. Narrative research is a way by
which we understand experience. Simply stated, narrative inquiry is stories of
experiences lived and told (Sherman and Rokne, 2010).
Narratives presented teachers with an important avenue for them to share their
teaching and learning experiences as they happened on their classrooms. This made
their journey of professional development more meaningful and real as they shared
real stories of their lived experiences as teachers. In getting PDTs and teachers to
narrate their stories, trust was a critical factor. The participants needed to trust the
researcher’s intentions, which were elaborated in the consent form they signed off and
through explanation of objectives of the research.
Data collection through ethnographic observation entails “spending long periods
watching people, coupled with talking to them about what they are doing, thinking and
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saying, to see how they understand their world” (Delamont, 2007, p. 206). According to
Bryman et al. (2009) ethnographic observers must jot down fairly detailed summaries
of their observations because of the frailties of human memory, while Walsh (2004)
added that audio recording of interviews and visual recording of observations can be
additional and valuable aids. Ethnographers also have to make decisions about what to
observe, whom to talk to, and what to record and how (Walsh, 2004). Educational
ethnographic work includes studies of change and innovation in school systems (Goetz
and LeCompte, 1984).
In this study, different aspects of design and implementation of PD were observed
including PDTs engagement in instructional design and eventually in implementation
of PD with teachers. Ethnographic observations were critical to gather data on the
changes happening in the classrooms following introduction of new teachings
strategies to teachers. The researcher engaged in ethnographic observations in the
research for a period from the beginning of instructional design in April 2011 to the
final face-to-face meeting held on 4 June 2011.
Qualitative interviews are a form of communication as a means of extracting
different forms of information from individuals and groups (Byrne, 2004). According to
Byrne, “the interactive nature of their practice means that interviewing is a highly
flexible but also somewhat unpredictable form of social research” (Byrne, 2004, p. 180).
Rapley (2007) argued, “the interview – seen in various forms of news interviews, talk
shows and documentaries, alongside research interviews – pervades and produces our
contemporary cultural experiences and knowledges of authentic personal, private selves”
(Rapley, 2007, p. 15) (emphasis in original).
In this study, the researcher conducted one-on-one interviews with all the 12
research participants at entry to establish their entry levels and also at exit to gather
data on their learning over the research period. Thus through the interviews, data that
enabled the researcher not only to gain glimpses into the personal, academic and
professional backgrounds of the participants but also their PD needs and their gain in
knowledge and skills at exit of the study.
Design research entails aspects of designing learning artifacts or a learning
environment and research processes. It has been argued that in most cases, the product
design process is not reported as part of design research, with many design researchers
simply reporting the ready-made structures (Kelly et al., 2008). “Documentation is the
archiving and indexing of the design research process that serves as a way of
gathering evidence of the effects of design changes, and serves to inform re-design if
changes to a prototype prove ineffective” (Kelly et al., 2008, p. 12).
Bannan-Ritland and Baek (2008) (citing Lawson, 2004) suggested that “the process
of design research subsumes many of the characteristics and processes representative
of the nature of design including locating relevant information, structuring the
problem, exercising creative insight, proposing a solution and evaluating the solution”
(p. 300). The design researchers quoted in this section point to a need to report on the
design process, which is referred to in this study as documentation of design artifacts.
In this study both the design process and designed artifacts were documented as
evidence of the process and product. Documenting design process is important both as
evidence of what was done in a study and also so that if one wanted to do a similar
study, they can be guided through reference to the design process and artifacts such as
the offline website designed for this study. Some of the artifacts shared as figures in
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this paper are illustrative of the documented artifacts during the research process. In
the following section the findings are presented following the ADDIE framework of
instructional design.
Findings
Based on the ADDIE framework of systematic instructional design, the findings
during in instructional design and implementation at each stage of the process are
presented. As depicted in Figure 1, collaborating as instructional designers, we worked
with tools including laptops as input devices, cameras for recording videos and tablets
as output devices. The objective was to enable teachers in a challenging context of
rural western Kenya to access quality professional development content. The findings
on instructional design and implementation of blended learning in the study are
presented in the following subsections.
Analysis
Analysis is a first stage in instructional design. It is critical to identify the problem and
the context in which the problem exists in order to design the best solution for the
problem. Thus both participant analysis and contextual analysis have to be done to
identify the problem and the conditions in which the problem exists.
The analysis stage revealed that both PDTs held masters’ degrees in education with
specialization in teacher education. They also had been involved in providing PD
programs for three years, and were interested in topics on teaching, learning and
assessment. PDT1 indicated her interest to learn through the research:
Apart from understanding what is on the ground especially in the rural areas – what the
challenges there are, I believe I will also have learned how to write programs [instructional
design] myself. You see a lot of times we have just done [developed PD programs] on paper,
but not developed a program using any other technology, which other people can access and
work on (entry interview).
The PDTs were both practicing teachers in the city of Nairobi who did not know much
about the rural location for the research. The views by both PDTs at entry were
important in recognizing both their qualifications and experiences as professional
development providers and that they were keen to learn instructional design. Thus the
Figure 1.
ADDIE framework of
systematic instructional
design
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PDTs’ profiles identified at the analysis stage were important for moving forward to
the design stage where they not only learned instructional design, but also contributed
to the content as the experts.
Of the ten teachers, five were female and five were male. One teacher was in the age
range of 50 to 59; five teachers in the age range of 40 to 49; two teachers in the age
range of 30 to 39 and two teachers in the age range 20 to 29. All the teachers had at
different times gone through initial teacher training, which consisted of two years in
teacher training colleges located in different counties of Kenya. All the teachers were
expected to teach all seven subjects in the primary school curriculum. None of the
teachers had any specific pedagogical training within a specific subject specialization.
Design
As noted by Liu et al. (2007), during the design phase, it is important to make sure all
the details are worked out before the development occurs, in order to provide a
blueprint of an efficient, cost-effective and easier development experience. The design
phase of our PD program entailed identification of appropriate technology for delivery
of content to teachers, while considering contextual realities.
Wewerecognizantofthefactthattypically,theteacherswerefullyoccupiedwithmost
of them teaching all the 40 lessons available per week. Thus we could not, for example,
requirethemtoleavetheschoolandgoawaytoatrainingcenter,foranumberofdays.On
theotherhand there wasnointernet access intherural setting thatwouldallowforonline
learning. In addition to lack of access to internet, the teachers also had no access to
computers; lacked computing skills; and had no connectivity to the national electricity
grid; hence no hope for access to online technology-enabled PD like their counterparts in
the developed countries. These challenges meant that the PD content had to revolve
around what the teachers do in their classrooms. We resolved to utilize inexpensive
appropriate technologies. These were choices made during the design phase.
Appropriate technology in the study included the SmartQ tablet; open source
HTML authoring software – eXe; and solar panels and batteries to harness solar
energy to operate the tablets. The choice of appropriate technologies for blended
learning were motivated by Schumacher’s (1973) suggestion that we may not import
very highly sophisticated technologies for communities that do not use very
sophisticated technologies. Referring to Schumacher’s guidance, Batteau (2010)
suggested that large corporate sponsored technologies such as energy-intensive
factories or large-scale manufacturing were unworkable in the developing contexts and
actually did damage in places where they were supposed to alleviate poverty. It was
therefore not possible, for example, to source for and install a working computer lab in
the rural setting before implementing PD for teachers.
For the PDTs who had never engaged in instructional design before, the design
process was enlightening. The following excerpts are indicative of the PDTs’ learning
through the process. PDT1 said:
This approach opens new horizons for me, in the sense that we have new ways to reach out to
teachers. I have learned instructional design. I don’t think I have ever done that before; since
in the other courses that I have participated in, the content we used was already prepared. So
for the first time I actually did participate in designing instruction. Not only being able to
design, but also be able to upload it onto a device that can then be used by teachers (exit
interview).
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Reflecting on her most exciting moment when she thought her expectations were met
during instructional design, PDT2 stated:
My most exciting moments during instructional design were the authoring part and then
when we were able to record the videos and the audios and were actually able to see them
come live on the tablet – we were able to access them. I was excited that I can actually do
that! (Exit interview).
ThePDTscametotheresearchaspractitionerswhohadskills,knowledgeandexperience
in providing PD. They, however, also brought authenticity to the PD program as experts
in the Kenyan curriculum, who contributed in designing contextually relevant content.
Assuchweplayedcomplementaryroles – thePDTsascontentexpertsandtheresearcher
as the instructional design and blended learning expert.
Development
Development phase is the stage where all pieces of the project are organized and built
according to the design plan (Liu et al., 2007). In other words, the development stage is
where all the various pieces are brought together to make a complete program ready
for implementation. The different parts envisioned in the design have to “come alive”
before having a final product.
The development phase of our instructional design process entailed creation of
learning content in several formats. The self-study content was first written as a
flowing document created in Microsoft Word program. The different activities were
identified and slotted in their relevant sections. Where there was need for a video clip,
audio clip, PDF reading or a picture, these sections and the relevant storyboard or
reference were identified.
The PDTs as practitioners, hence content experts developed all the storyboards that
were recorded either as audio role-plays or video clips. In total we had three videos
embedded in the PD content. We also recorded two audio clips and incorporated in the
content. We included a number of photographs as well to aid learning. Multimedia
content was either sourced from the research school as videos or pictures, audio
recordings of the PDTs engaging in role-play or global web content. Plate 1 is an
example of an artifact of two storyboards of a role-play.
Eventually, once all the required multimedia content was ready; that is text, audio,
video,andpictorial,thenexttaskwastoauthorwebcontentinHTMLformatusingeXe –
an open source eLearning platform developed to assist teachers and academics publish
webcontentwithouttheneedforproficiencyinHTMLorXMLmarkup(exelearningwiki,
2011). Since the text content had already been written in Microsoft word, it was easy to
copy and paste the content in eXe eLearning authoring platform thus activating it as
HTML. We then exported the file as a self-contained website as in Plate 2. The PDTs had
not engaged in such a process before, so it was particularly interesting and exciting to
learn through participation in authoring content in HTML format.
The experiences at the development phase of instructional design were expressed as
PDT1 commented:
During the instructional design, we went through [a] step-by-step process so that we can do it
ourselves. We can plan, upload [multimedia content] to the tablets, delete the information,
plan afresh, design a different course and do it all over again. And it is what we plan to do
after this. For us it was a learning experience (face-to-face meeting, 3).
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PDT2 also commented:
I have learned instructional design. I don’t think I have ever done that before. In the other
courses, that I have participated in before, what we have used is already prepared. So for the
ﬁrst time, I did actually participate in designing instruction. There was something else very
interesting; you know having to do audio and video recording to further support teachers who
are studying on their own (exit interview).
Plate 1.
Screenshot of storyboards
in development
Plate 2.
Screenshot of PD content
exported as website
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PDT2 further stated that:
I had thought that I could just upload the multimedia content and it would work. Then the
disappointment at times, when some of the media could not work when we uploaded, for
example, the audio. That was time that I really learned (exit interview).
The excerpts above are indicative of the learning by PDTs who had never engaged in
systematic instructional design before. Through this research PDTs were able to
change the way they prepare professional development content from one-off
workshops and seminars to longer blended learning format as indicated in the findings
during the implementation.
Implementation
Implementation stage provides an opportunity for the instruction designed to be put to
work in the environment where the need has been identified. Liu et al. (2007) have
intimated that the main instructional design task for the implementation phase is to
observe how the audience uses the product and to evaluate and report the findings.
Implementation entailed first of all bringing all the ten teachers together – a section of
them can be seen in Plate 3. The first step was for the teachers to go through the basics
of using a tablet, charging the external reservoir batteries using the solar panels and
also recharging the tablets from the reserved power. This was an important learning
session of the first face-to-face meeting led by PDTs, who had been part of the team of
teachers who were involved in usability testing of the whole process a year earlier.
For four hours the teachers participated in the first of three face-to-face meetings.
After the teachers had exhausted all the questions and comments, they were ready for
self-directed study armed with the content uploaded on tablet devices. They studied
and planned for selected lessons following teaching strategies spread over four units
(i.e. activity-based learning; cooperative learning; inquiry-based learning; and use of
the community and environment as a resource) and the various activities they were to
implement under each of the units. Since this was a whole new experience for the
teachers, the researcher was at hand in the school to provide any technical support to
Plate 3.
Teachers during a
face-to-face session on use
of tablets
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the teachers including troubleshooting on tablets throughout the four-week duration of
the course. In essence the researcher provided the technology stewardship to the
teachers before other stewards emerged amongst the teachers to play the stewardship
role (Wenger et al., 2009).
Teachers could reach PDTs on phone call, during the week, for any consultations on
content and implementation of the teaching strategies. After a fortnight, the PDTs
were available for a second face-to-face meeting where teachers shared their successes,
challenges and sought for guidance on difficulties encountered.
On use of the tablets, there were major successes as well as some challenges
recognized. For example, the teachers were all able to quickly learn how to use the
tablets in the four hours of first face-to-face meeting. However, during the four-week
self-directed study on tablets, some challenges concerning troubleshooting of the
tablets and charging emerged. Emily said:
Difficulties; may be the handling of the systems. You realize that during the time we were to
charge from the solar, it [battery] was not able to take power. It could take time. You find that
the tablet itself sometimes may hang. You operate and then it disappears without your
knowledge [inactive touch screen] (exit interview, 5).
While there were troubles like those raised by Emily, the teachers also confirmed that
they had learned how to handle troubleshooting when the tablets could not work.
Dennis said:
In the beginning computers [tablets] were jammed. But with time we were able now to access
the information. We used to invite you [researcher] to solve the problems. You never touched
my device [tablet] for support, but the ones you supported were able to share with me. I
learned how to resolve the problems. So whenever it could jam, I could not actually hold back
and wait for you. I could give it out and they resolve for me. For example, I learned how to
resolve the issues from Josh. I could give him and he fixes the problem (exit interview, 3).
Teachers as well contributed during face-to-face meetings on how they were fairing on
with their professional development. Nita, with a burning desire to tell the story of
what happened in her grade one class stated:
May I share my experiences? They [slow learners] were advantaged in that, for my case, I
encouraged those who were inactive in the group to be involved. For example, I had a girl,
Kate. Initially she was just seated alone. So I remember I went to where she was seated
several times, just to make her also take part in the counting. I attached her to whoever I had
chosen as a group leader. I told the group leader to ensure that Kate was also involved in
arranging and counting, because I had realized that she was not participating. I had to
encourage her to also arrange and count (face-to-face meeting, 2).
On use of learning materials in the teaching process, teachers shared experiences on
the need to improvise learning materials, while also voicing concerns about
expectations to improvise everything. They said there should be a balance between
improvisation and purchase of teaching and learning materials. These views arose
from Emah’s conversation during face-o-face meeting on how she worked with grade
two students to create paint from leaves and flowers:
I was handling a creative arts class. As Josh said, it is tiresome to find materials, and if you do
not have materials, learning won’t take place. We were doing a leaf-printing lesson and I had
some problems with the paints; although children participated very well. In fact, those ones
Blended learning
627

who are always dull are the ones who made the best prints compared to those ones who are
always active. For the paints we used, I just took the learners out and they used the
environment. They used leaves and flowers, and then they mixed with some water. Then they
made paint and that is what they used for printing. But it [print] didn’t come out clearly. So
there is need to buy some of the paints (Emah, face-to-face meeting, 2).
Emah’s views suggest that not only does the local environment provide materials that
can be used in making learning authentic for the students, but also that some students
who may have been missing out on learning because of their learning by doing style
benefit when learning with learning materials.
The excerpts above shared during interviews and face-to-face meetings captured
the feelings of satisfaction and achievement through the blended learning process.
That indeed we had made small steps towards reforming the way professional
development can be delivered to teachers in a rural setting who work in very
challenging conditions. In the following section, findings on evaluation, the final stage
of the ADDIE process is the focus.
Evaluation
According to Allen (2006), evaluation is the central feedback “network” in the whole
ADDIE process. This is a critical element because the ADDIE process is iterative and
the product or prototype should ideally improve at each stage. Feedback through
evaluation is therefore critical at each stage of the ADDIE process. In other words
evaluation runs through all the stages of the ADDIE process. Allen (2006) clarified that
evaluation activities are integrated into each phase of the process.
During the design phase of the PD program, as instructional designers we kept
challenging our decisions to ascertain the best fit for each of the activities, multimedia
content and the technologies. We, for example, had to really convince ourselves
through very consistent and genuine reflections on the process that one teaching
strategy such as cooperative learning would be best delivered through audio role play,
rather than reading text or viewing a video clip. As we went through these steps, we
were basically doing evaluation in order to make decisions best suited for that
particular moment.
During the implementation phase, evaluation took several forms. Among the
evaluation procedures were: researcher observation of lessons delivered by the
teachers, fortnightly face-to-face meetings between teachers and the PDTs, as well as
one-on-one discussions between the researcher and the teachers. In the face-to-face
meetings, each teacher spoke about their successes and challenges during the previous
two weeks. As the teachers shared their experiences, their colleagues and PDTs
provided feedback on the experiences shared. The face-to-face meetings hence played a
critical role as teachers discussed their teaching practice. Since evaluation is sometimes
considered as quality management (Dark, 2003), discussions at face-to-face meetings
helped improve teachers performance as was evident in subsequent lessons and in the
views expressed by teachers as they shared their experiences.
The PDTs provided the feedback to teachers as part of the evaluation process. For
example, PDT1 commended on one of the aspects one teacher mentioned as follows:
Mika talked of a teaching philosophy. And because this curriculum is lived in the classroom;
at the end of the day, whoever writes it [curriculum], it is just on paper – it is just paper-based
until it gets to the classroom, and that is where it is lived. And that is why the personal
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interpretation of each teacher makes it very different. And the experience of each classroom
very different, depending on how I have interpreted that curriculum, how I feel it restricts me.
If I decide it is too restrictive, then I know that mine is just this [narrow way of curriculum
interpretation] (face-to-face meeting, 3).
The foregoing findings through the instructional design and implementation of
blended learning for teachers’ professional development set the stage for considering
implications of such an approach in a challenging context. These discussions and
implications are presented in the following section.
Discussion and implications
There has been rapid growth in emerging technology over the past decade, thus
impacting greatly on the way business is done in different sectors. In teaching practice,
there has been tremendous move towards integration of these emerging technologies in
delivery of educational programs. While the changes are laudable, there is a large
population in the developing contexts such as rural Kenya like in many other
developing countries that has not fully benefited from the tremendous growth of the
emerging technologies.
The quality of teaching and learning in challenging contexts will not be realized by
placing one laptop in each student’s hands so that they can figure out on their own how
to learn, as the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) organization would like us to believe
(Watters, 2012). It is our contention that the teacher’s role to facilitate learning will
continue to be important. This is consistent with the zone of proximal development
(ZPD), which provides that learning is mediated through the guidance of a more
capable other (Vygotsky, 1978).
Through this study it was possible to provide learning resources prepared with
consideration of the contextual realities. As researcher and professional development
providers, we were able to avail locally relevant experiences to the teachers. Considered
against projects such as the OLPC initiative, where it is assumed that learners only
need a laptop and they will be able to learn on their own (Watters, 2012), we suggest
that teachers are needed to facilitate learning. Teachers can and do make a difference in
learning. They need to be empowered to perform this noble role rather than investing
in initiatives that aim to replace them with technology, as the OLPC would have it.
Teachers can make learning a pleasant experience for their students if provided with
contextually relevant and needs-based professional development.
We are hopeful that the open source community will hopefully continue to play an
increasingly important role in availing technology to challenging contexts. Open
educational resources, for example, may be an important catalyst for access to
contextually relevant content particularly for challenging contexts such as rural
Kenya. Open source resources such as Ubuntu-based Linux apps, and OERs played a
crucial role in enabling teachers in this study to access PD. Perhaps the African origin
of the term “Ubuntu” is relevant here as it means a sense of community where people
live and operate in a mutually supportive environment (Ford and Batchelor, 2007). The
Ubuntu spirit was evident in this study as teachers recognized that they needed each
other as they studied and implemented their newly acquired teaching strategies. It is
our hope that the Ubuntu spirit will live on among the teachers in the study as a means
of growing their nascent community.
Blended learning
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This study demonstrated that teachers and PD providers in challenging contexts
can both benefit from a respectful contextually situated approach to PD provision. The
annual Global Monitoring Reports for Education for All published since 2003
recurrently emphasize the need to improve the quality of teaching in challenging
contexts. The 2005 Report argued that how teachers are prepared to teach is a critical
indicator of education quality. The report states, “preparing teachers for the challenges
of a changing world means equipping them with subject-specific expertise, effective
teaching practices, an understanding of technology and the ability to work
collaboratively with other teachers, members of the community and parents”
(UNESCO, 2004, p. 108).
The study in this paper was all about the quote above from UNESCO. If the
Education for All and the two Millennium Development Goals related to education are
to be achieved, the quality of teaching will be a major factor to consider. We are
convinced that this study might be part of the answer for addressing the quality of
teaching especially in challenging contexts. To accelerate the realization of quality of
teaching there is a need to radically restructure the way teachers’ professional
development is conducted. This study presents one tested way.
Arising from the findings on the process of design and implementation of blended
learning for PD, we affirm that it is possible to leapfrog both PD providers and teachers
to use emerging technologies. It was possible for teachers to quickly grasp the use of
tablets, which were appropriate tools for the task, yet have not been implemented in the
location of our study before. Our experiences as instructional designers and the
teachers’ experiences as PD participants confirmed the ease with which innovation can
be adopted and utilized for improving teaching practice.
It is important to make appropriate technologies accessible to users in challenging
contexts and then other aspects to do with technology use and management will follow
through. That we were able to harness the abundantly available solar energy in rural
Kenya to operate the tablets, points to the potential opportunities available to enhance
access to learning in rural parts of Kenya and other similar places. Thus the fear of the
unknown should never be a hindrance when considering introducing ICT-enabled
education programs for those in challenging contexts.
We emphasize that there is a possibility of reaching a larger number of teachers
through use of appropriate technologies such as tablets, for professional development.
The ten teachers, who participated in this research, reported having availed the PD
content on the tablets to their colleagues who were not part of the study. The PDTs on
the other hand committed to continue providing PD through blended learning to other
teachers in other parts of Kenya using the technology tools used in the study reported
in this paper.
We acknowledge that PD offered through blended learning on appropriate
technologies, provides teachers with personalized learning. Studying through
self-directed approaches, teachers are able to pace their study. They adjust their
self-directed study to suit their own schedules determined by their workload and other
communal engagements. The cost effectiveness of this type of PD approach cannot be
ignored. It is possible to save on time and money that could have been used in
facilitating teachers to attend conventional PD sessions away from their school.
Finally, we confirmed that working with local expertise further strengthened this
mode of PD delivery. As indicated earlier, the PDTs took a commitment to roll out
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more programs for teachers both in other rural parts and in other challenging contexts
such as slums in cities. Such commitment points to a sustainable approach to offering
professional development to teachers who need it the most. Through such sustainable
approach to PD provision, we contributed in a small way towards achievement of both
Millennium Goals related to education and the six Education for All goals. Both
initiatives emphasize the use of technology in delivery of education. The blended
learning approach in the study in this paper is one tested way that could contribute
towards realizing these global aspirations.
Suggested further research
Based on the ﬁndings in this study, we offer some recommendations for further
research. The recommendations include:
.
scaling up this study in other challenging contexts following the blended
approach to learning;
.
a follow-up study in the original research school in rural western Kenya to
establish how the interventions in this study fared especially the emerging
community of practice; and
.
an extended and continued literature study on professional development
initiatives (including blended learning) in East Africa, in particular, and Africa in
general.
Conclusion
Based on our learning through the design and implementation process of the
professional development, we observed that teaching practices in a rural and
challenging context can be changed by working with local experts to create
locally-relevant content for needs-based PD, implemented in a blended learning
approach using appropriate technology. It is possible to make a signiﬁcant change in
such contexts where teachers rarely have opportunity for professional development, by
making available appropriate technologies for blended learning on emerging
technologies, such as tablets while working with local expertise as instructional
designers.
Through this study we actualized theoretical notions on the use of Open
Educational resources (OERs) by implementing them in real contexts in practice. It is
one thing to speak about the availability and access to learning resources through the
OER movement; however, as established in this study, there are other contextual
considerations to be made when implementing OERs in the real contexts. For example,
through this study it has been established that some of the OERs such as the audio
recordings cannot be used universally across Africa because of contextual differences
like the regional accents. People from North Africa, West Africa, East Africa and
Southern Africa all have their distinctive accents and these have to be taken into
consideration while advocating for use of OERs. While working with PDTs on content
development we had to record our own audio content for this study due to this practical
reality of African regional accents.
It was also established through this study it is possible for teachers to participate in
work place-based professional development without leaving their schools and
classrooms for extended periods. Heavy workloads notwithstanding, teachers can be
Blended learning
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facilitated to improve their teaching practices through their own practice. It is also
possible to improve teachers’ teaching practices and learners learning experiences,
through blended learning on appropriate technologies, implemented within the
work-contexts in schools and classrooms as happened in the study in this paper.
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About the authors
Brown Onguko is Assistant Professor at the Aga University – Institute for Educational
Development, Eastern Africa. Prior to joining the Aga Khan University, he worked as Assistant
Director in the Ministry of Education, Kenya in the Directorate and Policy and Planning. While at
the Ministry, he was the National Coordinator Education for All (EFA). Brown’s research
interests include: mobile and blended learning, and appropriate technology in teachers’
professional development. The author earned his PhD from the University of Calgary, Alberta,
Canada. He also has a Master of Science in Educational and Training Systems Design from the
University of Twente, The Netherlands, and a Master of Education in Philosophy of Education
from Kenyatta University. Brown Onguko is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
brown.onguko@aku.edu
Lucy Jepchumba is a Teacher at Ngara Girls Secondary School in Nairobi. Her teaching
subjects include English and Literature. She is holder of MEd in Teacher Education and is a
trained Professional Development Teacher (PDT).
Petronilla Gaceri is a Teacher at Uthiru Girls’ High School. She holds a Master of Education
(Teacher Education) from Aga Khan University, Dar es Salaam. She is a Professional
Development Teacher and has interests in improving student-teacher interaction through
student centered learning strategies for better learner outcomes. She has a great interest in
teachers’ professional development.
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