1. Research Papers
Purpose – There is no single way of achieving business success. The concept of knowledge
management (KM) builds on the existing management practices, integrating them into a
philosophy for improving performance. This paper aims to understand the various dimensions of
KM and how they differ in public and private sector organizations in India. It also attempts to
identify the dimensions where one sector is better than the other and areas needing improvement.
Introduction
Flexibility and agility of an organization through knowledge gaining, due to growing complexity
and rapid changes in the world, are considered as key success factors. Knowledge is known as a
principal, unique, and exceptional source for creating competitive advantage (Greineret al,
2007). Today, all organizations and companies around the globe acknowledge the benefits of
using knowledge. Contrary to depreciable value of material capital, the knowledge capital value
increases by using it (Davenport and Prusak, 2000). The knowledge salience and its application
in the organization and management are considered as the key success factors for surviving and
gaining constant competitive advantage. It is also discussed as a strategic asset in Economics
(NiazAzary and Amuei, 2007). The current economy has transformedinto a knowledge based
economy in which 1) knowledge is introduced as the main source in industrial economy instead
of natural resources and capital; 2) intangible assets, services and brands are more important
than tangible ones; 3) globe is a network supported by high technology communications
leading knowledge to pass boundaries and distances (Canteret al, 2009). The knowledge is
considered as the most important and valuable asset in hyper-competitive environments in the
developed countries because it is the only factor which contributes to change and innovation in
an organization. The higher education is an important institution in the developing countries
because it not only trains elites and sets the ground for application of technology but also it
influences broadly the culture and political affairs. According to the existing statistics, it can be
concluded that there is a huge gap between knowledge production process and valuing science
and research in Iran. In a systemic view, this gap can be investigated through input, process and
output dimensions of knowledge production in Iran. One of the main issues which needs to pay
attention is production, transferring and application of knowledge or in other words knowledge
management
All changes in societies are due to serious contribution of higher education. Therefore,
institutions dealing more with learning in society have the chance to be introduced as learning
organizations, acquire higher levels of performance, make better decisions, and improve
scientific and administrative quality (steyn, 2004). The higher education plays an important role
in knowledge creation and development of the human resources in all countries (Sukirno and
Siengthai, 2011). The role of universities has extended over the past decades so that that they are
at their “Third Stream” or “Third Mission”. This expression points to the role of universities in
development and improvement of the economy along with their traditional roles of education and
research (Rossi, 2010). The higher education institutions are facing with numerous challenges
and as (Milam, 2002) stated: extension of online resources and advent of virtual universities
show the necessity for implementation of knowledge management. They can increase the

2. number of students, employ and maintainknowledgeable and skillful employees, make profit out
of new electronic training opportunities, and use other web-based facilities such as replacement
of the existing administration systems by modern information systems which not only provides
managers’ required data, but also satisfies lecturers and students’ informational needs at any time
and at any place. Iran is a developing country in which few studies about its educational system
show many shortages and defects in fields of management, administration and education and
training (Attafar and Bahrami, 2008). The current or main challenge against development of
science and technology in this country is invention of a creative and innovative educational and
research-based structure to set the ground for growth of knowledge and science among different
groups of society, based on essential needs and priorities of that society in a continuous and
dynamic form (Jamalzadehet al, 2011). Accordingly, the vision statement of Islamic Republic of
Iran for the next twenty years has introduced the knowledge as the core pillar for development.
Knowledge, technology, and expertise has mentioned as the major elements of producing added
value. The first section in law of forth economic, social, and cultural development plan
(2004)has dedicated to “Knowledge-based Development” (Hasanzadeh, 2007). Due to the
changes in knowledge management and higher education structuresin all around the world along
, it is a necessity for the public and private higher education systems to contribute toachievement
of goals in the next twenty years . So, it is required to regard universities as learning
organizations by applying knowledge management system. Knowledge management in higher
education is a set of organizational processes supporting knowledge creation and transfer in
universities and achievement of organizational and academic goals. Since measurement is the
perquisite of performance improvement, a proper framework is required to measure the
organization readiness for knowledge management implementation. The current paper
investigates and compares the readinessdegree of basic infrastructures for knowledge
management implementation in a public higher education system in the eastern north of Iran,
Payam Noor University–Mashhad Center, and a private one in this region, Islamic Azad
University, Mashhad Branch. The results also provide the opportunity for universities to hinder
probable failures due to the weakness in these infrastructures by planning and employing
solutions to create or amend them. The comparison of public and private sectors in the higher
education system levels the ground for the senior managers to recognize the pros and cons of
each sector and facilitate the cooperation among universities contributing to growth and
development ofthe higher education in Iran or, generally speaking, Middle East.
2. Literature review
Before discussing about knowledge management and knowing what is to be managed in it, it is
required to explain some expressions and processes which are the integral parts of this system.
Datais a series of unrelated facts and observations which may be converted into information by
analysis, cross-referencing, selecting, matching, summarizing or organizing. Information models
can also be turned into an integrated body of knowledge and knowledge also consists of an
organized body of information. These kinds of information models are the basics of insight and
judgment which are called wisdom . It is accepted that data, as raw facts, will turn into
information when they are in the context or combine with a meaning in a structure. The
information is also convertedinto the knowledge when it is accompanied with experience and
judgment. This view shows that the data is a background for information and information is a
background for the knowledge

4. Knowledge is divided into the tacit and explicit knowledge. Based on Nonaka and Konno (1998)
tacit knowledge is in individual’s mind. The results of this kind of knowledge appears in each
person’s views, actions and habits

5. involving two types of knowledge which one form the cognitive knowledge, views and mental
models, and the other composes the skills and technical knowledge.But the explicit knowledge is
capable of being simply processed by computers, transferred electronically, and stored in the
databases. It can be shared in the forms of words, numbers, formulas, instructions and so on.
This knowledge can be simply encoded and transferred formally and systematically between the
individuals (Rezaeeyanet al, 2010). An important and difficult stage in the process of
organizational knowledge is conversion of the explicit knowledge to the tacit one (Lindner and
Wald, 2010). The knowledge management will be implemented in an organization providing that
these two types of knowledge are capable of being transformed into each other and create
competitive advantage for the organizations. This is the tacit knowledge which is the biggest
challenge for knowledge management and its management can level the ground for individual
and group learning, innovations and achievement to the competitive advantage in the
organizations.
2.1. Knowledge management
There is no unique definition for knowledge management. Alavi and leidner (2001) stated that
different approaches toward knowledge lead to several inferences. If we consider knowledge as
a goal, knowledge management will have to concentrate on knowledge framework and its
storage and if we regard it as a process, it will have to emphasize on the knowledge trend and
processes of creating, sharing and transferring knowledge. Also, if we consider knowledge as
the superiority, knowledge management will focus on developing capabilities, understanding
strategic advantages, and creating intellectual capital. Knowledge management framework
consists of activities such as recognizing, gaining, creating, storing, sharing, and applying
knowledge by people and groups in an organization (Sun, 2010). In this respect, Wen (2009)
defines knowledge management as sets of procedures for creating, gaining, sharing and
applying knowledge to improve organizational performance. In a comprehensive definition of
knowledge management, it is introduced as managing and preparing transfer of the tacit
knowledge to the explicit one and vice versa in an organization through collecting, sharing and
using knowledge as an organizational capital in order to achieve the organizational goals . It
seems that all the researchers are agreed on the definition stated by Davenport : knowledge
management means utilization and development of knowledge assets of an organization to
achieve its goals. A managed knowledge involves two types of the objective, explicit, and the
subjective, implicit knowledge .The management of this knowledge consists of all processes
related to identifying, sharing and producing the knowledge. This requires a system for
production and maintenance of knowledge repositories and promotion and facilitation of
knowledge sharing and organizational learning. Organizations which are successful in
knowledge management consider knowledge as an organizational capital and develop the
organizational values and rules to support knowledge production and sharing.
2.1.1. Knowledge infrastructure capability
Knowledge infrastructure capabilities play a major role in organizational performance and
innovation and they facilitate the knowledge management activities such as coding and sharing
knowledge assets among people in an organization (Mills and Smith, 2011). Also, they
encourage people to share their knowledge and experiences with each other . Knowledge

6. enablers have been discussed in many researches (Lee and Lee, 2007). Davenport et al (1998),
Gold et al (2001), Alavi and Leinder (2001), and Lee and Choi (2008) have introduced the
organizational culture, structure and technology as the knowledge enablers, e.g. Davenport et al
(1998), by investigating 31 knowledge management projects in 24 companies, found that
organizations with better technical and structural infrastructures are more successful in their
knowledge management projects. Gold et al (2001) concluded that technology, organizational
structure and organizational culture are the most important knowledge infrastructure capabilities.
2.1.2. Organizational culture
Organizational culture is a fundamental factor in knowledge management implementation. It is a
set of values, opinions, norms,and perceptions people have in common. An effective culture
plays a major role in creation of a suitable environment for exchanging and supporting
knowledge activities in organizations . The ability of organizations to learn, development of
organizational memory and knowledge sharing depend on the culture.

7. Many organizations imagine they can achieve knowledge management by purchasing
information and communication technologies. However, the experience shows that the most
powerful soft wares are unfruitful without persuading employees to share knowledge. A
fundamental change in organizational culture and behavior is one of the main pillars of
knowledge management. Regarding knowledge as a value and capital, employing creativity and
innovation in employees’ activities and creating mutual trust among people in the organization
are needs which have to be satisfied. Also, paying attention to the social and group relations and
organizational ethics in knowledge management and establishing a creative and innovative
culture which is based on trust and knowledge sharing are the issues which cannot be addressed
by technology. But they need planning and redesigning the organizational processes (Rabiee and
Nouroozi, 2011).
2.1.3. Organizational structure
Formality, concentration, complexity, size, reward system, communication channels, and
employee’s group work are the components of an organizational structure. The structure of an
organization is always the representative of communication type and organizational structures. It
can help knowledge management to achieve its goals in various dimensions. For example, in an
organization with an open atmosphere, low formality, lack of concentration and a strong
communicational channel, the employees are able to communicate simply with each other, solve
problems with their colleagues and build a trustable culture to share knowledge which
subsequently results in an increase in the possibility of knowledge management implementation
(Rabiee and Nouroozi, 2011). On the other hands, the organizational structure can affect the
knowledge management processes and organizational leadership . It playsa major role in
knowledge management team formation. Therefore, adopting appropriate strategies is influential
for reaching success in the knowledge management plan.
2.1.4. Information technology
A newest definition for information technology which is agreed by the most of the researchers is
as follows: information involves a wide range of patents and communicational media linking the
informational systems and individuals to each other. Informational systems and information
technology are mostly mixed together so that they are called information technology (Rabiee and
Nouroozi, 2011). Recent studies show that organizations which are investing on knowledge
management concentrate generally on establishment of the proper information infrastructures to
achieve their goals. Information technology results in facilitation in creating, sharing, storing and
applying knowledge in an organization (Lee and Lee, 2007). It also flattens the organizational
structures and increasesthe knowledge management effectiveness . There are few researches
investigating knowledge management infrastructures in knowledge-based organizations such as
universities: Abdullah et al(2008) surveyed the implementation of knowledge management
system in the public higher education in Malaysia. The research population consists of six
universities in Klang Valley. The findings showed that the knowledge management
implementation is accepted by Malaysian public universities. Nevertheless, knowledge sharing
culture and organizational structure in these institutions are not at an optimum level. Instead, the
information technology readiness for knowledge management implementation indicates a high
level of readiness. Mohayidinetal(2007) investigated the effect of knowledge management
employment on the efficiency of eight public and private Malaysian universities. The results
revealed that infrastructure support, informational culture and knowledge provision, creation,

8. storage, and dissemination are the basic components in framing primary knowledge management
initiatives. Informational culture is known as the main variable. The findings also indicated that
achange in culture and human factors is quite difficult. But, these changes affect the knowledge
management projects significantly. Rowley (2000) researched the capability of applying
knowledge management concepts in Canadian universities. He stated that there are some
difficulties againstthe creation of knowledge-based environment in universities. He concluded
that an effective knowledge management implementation in Canadian universities requires a
revision in the organizational structures and reward system. He believes that the amount of
information technology in Canadian universities is a good facilitator for the knowledge sharing
activities.
Fathollahietal(2010) surveyed the feasibility of knowledge management implementation in
University of Isfahan from researchers’ perspective. They found that, contrary to two structures
and information technology factors, this university has a favorable readiness for knowledge
management implementation in the culture dimension. Hosseini(2007) investigated the
knowledge management infrastructure in two faculties of psychology and educational sciences
in University of Isfahan. He concluded that technical infrastructure status in the faculty level is
relatively more suitable than the managerial and organizational culture. Table 1 summarizes the
past researches done in the field of knowledge management implementation in universities all
around the world.
5. Conclusion and discussion
Undoubtedly, since knowledge is the main competitive advantage for the current organizations,
implementation of knowledge management is a necessary strategy. Thus, universities
andeducational and research institutions ought to be leading organizations in designingand
implementation of an appropriate knowledge management system. This requires the
investigation of infrastructures of knowledge management and a practical action in the different
stages of knowledge management implementation. The current research studied these principal
factors in public and private universities in the north east of Iran. The findings showed that
“culture and human factors” is the most important infrastructure in both public and private
universities. It also indicates that this dimension is not at an optimal level for implementation of
knowledge management in the public university. Abdollah(2008) and Hosseini(2007)also found
that the culture is not optimal in public universities.Fathollahiet al(2009) stated that “culture and
human factors” is relatively optimal in both public and private universities. Mohayidinetal(2007)
expressed that informational culture in public and private universities in Malaysia is larger than
the average. The main reason for the superiorityof “culture and human factors” in IAU (private)
over PNU (public) is thehighsupport of IAU from its faculty members to record their thoughts
and experiences derived from their researches. The willingness to work with teams for the
purpose of sharing knowledge is the other reason for the relative superiority ofIAU over PNU.
The second research question addressed “structures and processes” as the other influential factor
in knowledge management implementation which was found as the least important infrastructure
in PNU and the important one in IAU after “culture and human factors”.These findings are
consistent with Fatholahiet al(2009); Hosseini(2007); Abdollahet al(2008); and Rowley(2000). It
also shows that IAU is relatively ready in respect of “structure and processes”.
Mohayidinetal(2007) found that the organizational structure status is better than the average in
Malaysian public and private universities. The relative superiority of IAU to PNU in this

9. research could be due to the low level of bureaucracy, relative flexibility of the processes and
actions, decentralization as well as clear and rapid communications.
The last research question took “information technology” into account. Analyses demonstrated
that this infrastructure is the most significant factor after “culture and human factors” in PNU.
Contrary, it is the least significant one in IAU. “Information technology” is not also ready to
implement knowledge management in the public university (PNU). These results are aligned
with Fathollahietal(2009). But, Husseini (2007) and Abdollahetal(2008) concluded that
information technology is at an optimal level. On the other hand, findings indicated that this
factor is at an average level for IAU. Mohayidinetal(2007) stated that the technical
infrastructure is larger than the average in Malaysian public and private universities.
Rowley(2000) believes that information technology inCanadian universities is suitable for
facilitating the knowledge sharing. The relative superiority of IAU in information technology
infrastructure in the current research is justifiable since this university, a private institution, is
more flexible in relation to allocation of the financial resources and provision of the information
technologycomparing tothe high complicated procedures and regulations of the public
organizations.The more willingness to communicate and share knowledge in IAU is the other
reason for its relative superiority in this infrastructure.