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Jarrar: Propositional Logic Inference Methods
1.
Jarrar © 2013
1 Dr. Mustafa Jarrar Sina Institute, University of Birzeit mjarrar@birzeit.edu www.jarrar.info Lecture Notes on Inference Methods, University of Birzeit, Palestine Spring Semester, 2014 Artificial Intelligence Section 7.5 (& extra) Inference Methods In Propositional Logic
2.
Jarrar © 2013
2 Watch this lecture and download the slides from http://jarrar-courses.blogspot.com/2011/11/artificial-intelligence-fall-2011.html
3.
Jarrar © 2013
3 This lecture • Enumeration Method • Inference rules • Resolution • Forward and backward Chaining Lecture Keywords: ،الشكلي المنطق ،المنطقاالستنتاجاالستنباط ،،االستنتاج قواعد ، ا ،صحة االستنتاج طرقلجمل،المنطقيةالتناقض ،الحدود Logic, Propositional Logic, Inference Methods, Deduction, Reasoning, Enumeration Method, Inference rules, Resolution, refutation theorem-proving technique, Forward Chaining, Backward Chaining, Conjunctive Normal Form,Horn clauses, entailment, Logical Implication, Soundness, Completeness ،satisfiable, Unsatisfiable Information and material largely based on [1]
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Jarrar © 2013
4 Inference Methods • Enumeration Method • Inference rules • Resolution • Forward and backward Chaining
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Jarrar © 2013
5 Truth Tables for Inference Propositional Inference: Enumeration Method
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Jarrar © 2013
6 Propositional Inference: Enumeration Method • Let = A B and KB = (A C) (B C) • Is it the case that KB ╞ • Check all possible models, must be true wherever KB is true
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Jarrar © 2013
7 Propositional Inference: Enumeration Method • Depth-first enumeration of all models is sound and complete. • For n symbols, time complexity is O(2n), space complexity is O(n).
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Jarrar © 2013
8 Inference Methods • Enumeration Method • Inference rules • Resolution • Forward and backward Chaining
9.
Jarrar © 2013
9 Inference Rule: Modus Ponens The rule is written as: , Means, whenever any sentences of the form and are given, then the sentence can be inferred. If , then . . Therefore, For example, if (WumpusAhead WumpusAlive) Shoot and (WumpusAhead WumpusAlive) are given, then Shoot can be inferred.
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Jarrar © 2013
10 More Inference Rules: Logical Equivalences • Two sentences are logically equivalent iff true in same models: α ≡ ß iff α╞ β and β╞ α All rules are sound if used with search algorithms, but they might be inadequate to reach a goal (i.e., completeness is not guaranteed).
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Jarrar © 2013
11 Inference Methods • Enumeration Method • Inference rules • Resolution • Forward and backward Chaining Proof by contradiction, i.e., show KB α unsatisfiable.
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Jarrar © 2013
12 Resolution Resolution is a rule of inference leading to a refutation ()دحض theorem- proving technique for sentences in propositional logic. That is, applying the resolution rule in a suitable way allows for telling whether a propositional formula is satisfiable; Resolution was introduced by John Alan Robinson in 1965. Suppose we have a knowledge base in this form: By resolving (A B) and (A B), we obtain (AA), which is reduced to A Notice that this rule applies only when a knowledge base in form of conjunctions of disjunctions of literals. A B, A B A
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Jarrar © 2013
13 Resolution We first write/convert the formulas into Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF): conjunction of disjunctions of literals clauses E.g., (A B) (B C D) A literal is a propositional variable or the negation of a propositional variable. • Resolution inference rule (for CNF): where li and mj are complementary literals (one is the negation of the other). E.g., Resolution is sound and complete for propositional logic. li … lk, m1 … mn li … li-1 li+1 … lk m1 … mj-1 mj+1 ... mn P1,3 P2,2, P2,2 P1,3 a b, a c b c
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Jarrar © 2013
14 Conversion to CNF Any sentence in propositional logic can be transformed into an equivalent sentence in Conjunctive Normal Form. Example: B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1) 1. Eliminate , replacing α β with (α β)(β α). (B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1)) ((P1,2 P2,1) B1,1) 2. Eliminate , replacing α β with α β. (B1,1 P1,2 P2,1) ((P1,2 P2,1) B1,1) 3. Move inwards using de Morgan's rules and double-negation: (B1,1 P1,2 P2,1) ((P1,2 P2,1) B1,1) 4. Apply distributivity law ( over ) and flatten: (B1,1 P1,2 P2,1) (P1,2 B1,1) (P2,1 B1,1)
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Jarrar © 2013
15 Resolution Algorithm Any sentence in propositional logic can be transformed into an equivalent sentence in conjunctive normal form. Steps: • All sentences in KB and the negation of the sentence to be proved (the conjecture) are conjunctively connected. • The resulting sentence is transformed into a conjunctive normal form with the conjuncts viewed as elements in a set, S, of clauses. • The resolution rule is applied to all possible pairs of clauses that contain complementary literals. After each application of the resolution rule, the resulting sentence is simplified by removing repeated literals. If the sentence contains complementary literals, it is discarded (as a tautology). If not, and if it is not yet present in the clause set S, it is added to S, and is considered for further resolution inferences. • If after applying a resolution rule the empty clause is derived, the complete formula is unsatisfiable (or contradictory), and hence it can be concluded that the initial conjecture follows from the axioms. • If, on the other hand, the empty clause cannot be derived, and the resolution rule cannot be applied to derive any more new clauses, the conjecture is not a theorem of the original knowledge base. [2]
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16 • The resolution algorithm tries to prove: KB ╞ equivalent to KB unsatisfiable • Generate all new sentences from KB and the query. • One of two things can happen: 1. We find a case like P P which is unsatisfiable, which means we can entail the query. 2. We find no contradiction: there is a model that satisfies the sentence KB (non-trivial) and hence we cannot entail the query. Resolution Algorithm (in short)
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17 Resolution Algorithm • Proof by contradiction, i.e., show KB α unsatisfiable. [1]
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18 Example KB = (PQ) Q (P P) R (R S) (S Q) = R Does KB entails (KB╞ ) P Q1. P R2. P R3. R S4. R Q5. S Q6. R neg7. S 4,78. Q 6,89. P 1,910. R 3,1011. . 7,1112. Contradiction!
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19 Exercise 1 KB = (B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1)) Breeze in [1,1] iff there is a Pit in [1,2] or [2.1]. B1,1 There is on Breeze in [1,1] = P1,2 No Pit in [1,2]? Does KB entails (KB╞ ) KB False in all worldsTrue!
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20 Exercise 2 KB = (B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1)) Breeze in [1,1] iff there is a it is [1,2] or [2.1]. B1,1 There is on Breeze in [1,1] = P1,2 Pit in [1,2]? Does KB entails (KB╞ )
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21 Completeness of the Resolution Method • Self reading from the book • You should be able to prove the completeness of the resolution method (at least informally).
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22 Inference Methods • Enumeration Method • Inference rules • Resolution • Forward and backward Chaining
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23 Horn Clauses Resolution can be exponential in space and time. If we can reduce all clauses to “Horn clauses” resolution is linear in space and time. A Horn clause has at most 1 positive literal. e.g. A B C P1 P2 P3 ... Pn Q; ~a V b V c V ~d Not a Horn Clause Every Horn Clause can be rewritten as an implication with a conjunction of positive literals in the premises and a single positive literal as a conclusion. e.g. B C A Can be used with forward chaining or backward chaining algorithms. These algorithms are very natural and run in linear time!
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24 It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy AND gate OR gate Query “I am happy”? Forward chaining example Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing
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25 Forward chaining example It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy 2 2 2 2 1 Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found “I am happy”? I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing
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26 Forward chaining example It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy 2 2 1 1 1 Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found “I am happy”? I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing
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27 Forward chaining example It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy 2 1 1 0 1 Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found “I am happy”? I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing
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28 Forward chaining example It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy 1 0 1 0 1 Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found “I am happy”? I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing
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29 Forward chaining example It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy 0 0 1 0 1 Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found “I am happy”? I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing
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30 I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing Forward chaining example It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy 0 0 0 0 0 Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found “I am happy”?
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31 Forward chaining example It’s Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Heating On I feel sleepy I am happy 0 0 0 0 0 I feel sleepy I am happy I am at home heating On I feel sleepy I am at home It’s snowing Heating On Today is Holiday I feel sleepy I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing I am at home Today is Holiday It’s snowing Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB, – add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found Forward chaining is sound and complete for Horn KB “I am happy”?
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32 Think about this Suppose that the goal is to conclude the color of a pet named Fritz, given that (he croaks and eats flies), and that the Knowledge base contains the following : 1. If (X croaks and eats flies) - Then (X is a frog) 2. If (X chirps and sings) - Then (X is a canary) 3. If (X is a frog) - Then (X is green) 4. If (X is a canary) - Then (X is yellow) This Knowledge base would be searched and the first rule would be selected, because its antecedent (If Fritz croaks and eats flies) matches our given data. Now the consequents (Then X is a frog) is added to the data. The rule base is again searched and this time the third rule is selected, because its antecedent (If Fritz is a frog) matches our data that was just confirmed. Now the new consequent (Then Fritz is green) is added to our data. Nothing more can be inferred from this information, but we have now accomplished our goal of determining the color of Fritz. Croaks ينعق Frog ضفدع Chirps يغرد Canary كناري
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33 Backward Chaining p1 p2 … pn q Idea: work backwards from the query q • check if q is known already, or • prove by BC all premises of some rule concluding q • Hence BC maintains a stack of sub-goals that need to be proved to get to q. Avoid loops: check if new sub-goal is already on the goal stack Avoid repeated work: check if new sub-goal 1. has already been proved true, or 2. has already failed Backward chaining is the basis for “logic programming,” e.g., Prolog
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34 Backward chaining example
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35 Backward chaining example
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36 Backward chaining example
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37 Backward chaining example we need P to prove L and L to prove P.
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38 Backward chaining example
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39 Backward chaining example
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40 Backward chaining example
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41 Backward chaining example
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42 Backward chaining example
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43 Backward chaining example
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44 Forward vs. Backward Chaining • FC is data-driven, automatic, senseless processing, – e.g., object recognition, routine decisions • May do lots of work that is irrelevant to the goal • BC is goal-driven, (bottom-up reasoning) appropriate for problem-solving, – e.g., Where are my keys? • Complexity of BC can be much less than linear in size of KB
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45 Summary • Logical agents apply inference to a knowledge base to derive new information and make decisions. • Basic concepts of logic: – syntax: formal structure of sentences – semantics: truth of sentences wrt models – entailment: necessary truth of one sentence given another – inference: deriving sentences from other sentences – soundness: derivations produce only entailed sentences – completeness: derivations can produce all entailed sentences • Resolution is sound and complete for propositional logic • Forward, backward chaining are linear-time, complete for Horn clauses • Propositional logic lacks expressive power
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46 References [1] S. Russell and P. Norvig: Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach Prentice Hall, 2003, Second Edition [2] Leitsch, Alexander (1997), The resolution calculus, EATCS Monographs in Theoretical Computer Science, Springer, p. 11, Before applying the inference method itself, we transform the formulas to quantifier-free conjunctive normal form.