Police workforce planning in a dynamic environment

Police Workforce Planning
in a Dynamic Environment

Jeremy M. Wilson
School of Criminal Justice
jwilson@msu.edu
September 18, 2012

© 2012 Michigan State University Wilson- 1

Agenda

• Staffing supply and demand

• Turnover and retention

• Recruitment and selection

• Consolidation


Agenda




• Consolidation


The Police Role is Expanding


The Staffing Challenge is Dynamic


Three Steps to Meeting Workforce Needs
• Determine the staffing level
needed to complete the task
demands and performance
objectives of a department
• Determine the proper
staffing structure that most
cost-effectively meets the
needs of a department
• Selectively use recruiting
and retention tools in a way
that fosters the
department’s goals, taking
into account practical
problems

A Bucket Approach to Framing the Police
Staffing Challenge
Need/Demand

Allocation
Unmet
Demand
Staffing Current
Deficit Level


There’s a Widening Hole in the Bucket

Baby-Boom
Retirements
Changing Military
Generational Call-ups
Expectations
Organizational
Budget Crises Characteristics

The Faucet (Supply) is Tightening
Decrease in
Expanded Skill
Qualified
Requirements
Applicant Pool

Changing Uncompetitive
Generational Benefits
Preferences
Organizational
Increased Characteristics
Competition


The Demand is Expanding

Homeland
Security
Community
Policing Emerging
Crimes


So What About the Recession?
• Citing application booms and budget shortfalls, some
claim it has solved the staffing crisis
Level

Applicants

Resources

Time since economic downturn Wilson- 13
© 2012 Michigan State University

It’s Not Quite So Simple…
• Those overwhelmed by applications struggle with
selection and question the long-term commitment of
applicants

• Some agencies still report drops in applications and
staffing shortages

• Systemic trends transcend shorter-term fluctuations in
the economy

• Scarce resources necessitate decisionmakers learn how
to most cost-effectively build, maintain, and allocate
quality forces

• Balance must be struck between recruitment and
retention to ensure a proper staffing distribution among
the ranks and through the experience continuum

Developing Evidence-Based Personnel
Planning Lessons
• A 2008 national staffing survey of police agencies
with 300 or more officers (N=146)
– Nearly 10 months in the field
– Extensive follow-up and technical assistance

• In all, 107 agencies responded, resulting in a 73
percent response rate

• The response was favorable given the complexity
of the survey, but nonresponse was problematic for
some substantive areas


Many Departments Suffer From Too Many
Junior Officers
80 10 or less YOS
11 to 20 YOS
70 21 or more YOS

60

50
%
40

30

20

10

0

Department


Many Departments Suffer From Too Few
Junior Officers
70 10 or less YOS
11 to 20 YOS
60 21 or more YOS

50

% 40

30

20

10

0

Department


Departments Live With the Legacy of Past
Personnel Decisions (1)

%

Years of Service
On average, departments appear “healthy”

Departments Live With the Legacy of Past
Personnel Decisions (2)

%

Years of Service
…But individually, many exhibit chaotic patterns

Healthy and Unhealthy Patterns Exist

10 or less YOS
11 to 20 YOS
80 21 or more YOS
70

60
%
50

40

30

20

10

0
Average A B C D E


Why Do These Personnel Patterns Matter?
• Cohorts progress through the organization over time
• Unhealthy patterns can cause various administrative
challenges that can undermine police effectiveness
– Recruit and field training
– Promotion assessment, frequency, and
competitiveness and motivation for career
progression
– Budget consumption as cohort matures
– Mass loss of staff and experience as cohort retires
• Cohorts that differ from mean can start to oscillate
– Year-to-year fluctuations can be difficult to control
with new recruits and recruitment and retention tools

Even More Reason to Consider the Existing
Cohort Structure When Making Major
Personnel Decisions
Personnel action Junior heavy
Substantially better, reduces
Hiring freeze
junior cohort
Substantially better, reduces
Academy cancellation
junior cohort
Not employing recruits Substantially better, reduces
completing academy junior cohort
Substantially better, assuming
Layoff
least senior targeted
Substantially worse, further
Mandatory retirement
reduces senior cohort
Substantially worse, assuming
Buy-out
most senior targeted
Moderately worse, maintains
Furlough
imbalance
Unfilled attrition greater attrition among senior
cohort


Even More Reason to Consider the Existing
Cohort Structure When Making Major
Personnel Decisions
Personnel action Junior heavy Senior heavy Efficient
Substantially better, reduces Substantially worse, Moderately worse,
Hiring freeze
junior cohort reduces junior cohort reduces junior cohort
Substantially better, reduces Substantially worse, Moderately worse,
Academy cancellation
junior cohort reduces junior cohort reduces junior cohort
Not employing recruits Substantially better, reduces Substantially worse, Moderately worse,
completing academy junior cohort reduces junior cohort reduces junior cohort
Substantially worse, Moderately worse,
Substantially better, assuming
Layoff assuming least senior assuming least senior
least senior targeted
targeted targeted
Substantially worse, further Substantially better, Moderately worse,
Mandatory retirement
reduces senior cohort reduces senior cohort reduces senior cohort
Substantially better, Moderately worse,
Buy-out assuming most senior assuming most senior
most senior targeted
targeted targeted
Moderately worse, maintains Moderately worse, Substantially better,
Furlough
imbalance maintains imbalance maintains balance
Substantially worse, assuming Substantially better, Moderately worse,
Unfilled attrition greater attrition among senior assuming greater attrition assuming greater attrition
cohort among senior cohort among senior cohort


Managing Police Workforces
is a Delicate Process
• It is important to distinguish workforce structures from
staffing levels
• Goals for both workforce levels and structures must be
set
• The factors that challenge the ability to meet workforce
goals are multi-dimensional, systemic, and local
• Recruitment and retention tools are used to meet and
maintain these goals (not just staffing levels)
• Many recruitment strategies have little measurable
• This underscores the importance of maintaining proper
workforce balances that do not increase the oscillation of
workforce structures


Data Capacities Must be Improved to
Facilitate Personnel Planning
• Significant data limitations exist
• Collection
• Consistency
• Data shortcomings hamper the development and
application of basic, evidence-based tenets of
personnel management
– Serious implications for hiring, training, budgeting,
promotion, and maintaining workforce structures
• Investment in data and analysis is required to advance
a ―police planning science‖ that can improve decision-
making and efficiency


Agenda




• Consolidation


What is Turnover?

• Turnover occurs when an employee leaves an
organization

• Two major types
– Voluntary—employee terminates relationship
• AKA: unplanned, undesired, dysfunctional,
and avoidable
– Involuntary—employer terminates relationship
• AKA: planned, desired, functional, and
unavoidable


How Can We Measure Turnover?
Type of
Formula
Turnover
Number of separations  number of
Overall
employees
(Number of separations – unavoidable
• Traditional measurement  number of employees
Avoidable
separations)
(Number of separations – turnover
• What is the difficulty in using general voluntary rate as an
Involuntary
separations)  number of employees
exclusive measurement of employee retention?
Number of separations of employees with
Recent hire <2 years of experience  number of
• Should choose appropriate numeratorsexperience
employees with <2 years of
and
denominators and otherof new hires this month  number
Number contextual information (e.g.,
Cohort
peers) of new hires still on the job in 6 months


How Can We Measure Turnover?
Type of
Formula
Turnover
Number of separations  number of
Overall
employees
(Number of separations – unavoidable
Avoidable
(Number of separations – voluntary
Involuntary
Number of separations of employees with
Recent hire <2 years of experience  number of
employees with <2 years of experience
Number of new hires this month  number
Cohort
of new hires still on the job in 6 months


Who Leaves?
• Half the officers leaving large agencies are retirees, but
only 20% leaving smaller agencies are retirees

• 67% of departing officers in small agencies, and 33% of
officers in large agencies, leave within 5 years or less

• Nearly half of departing officers from small agencies, and
about 25% from larger agencies, go on to other law
enforcement work elsewhere
Sources: Copeland, 2009; Lynch & Tuckey, 2004; Mitchell et al., 2001; Orrick, 2008


Turnover is Multidimensional
• Retention of employees has been described as the most
pressing leadership challenge in policing (Copeland, 2009)

• Does this hold true in the Great Recession?
– Understanding factors that contribute to turnover
– Consider the myriad costs of perpetually recruiting and
retraining new employees (not just monetary)

• Turnover occurs for reasons that may be singular (a
specific incident) or cumulative (a culture or progression)

• Communication is a crucial element in resolving problems
before they occur


Addressing Turnover
• Police agencies often fail to offer the sort of (even low
cost) strategies shown to combat turnover and increase
employee engagement over the career course

• What makes police agencies slow to address turnover?
– Lack of understanding of the root causes

• Has the Great Recession put police managers in denial?
• What does turnover communicate about the department?


Looking at Turnover Differently

• Turnover can be both a positive and negative metric

• How this activity is seen depends on the context of
the event itself

• How does the organization view the issue of staff
mobility? Is it encouraged, or dreaded?

• Practical issues arise
– Costs of replacement and training
– Negative impressions of organization
– Potential positive opportunities presented


Potential Positive Effects of Turnover…
• Some turnover may be desirable: low performers,
troublemakers, those averse to change, and others

• Reinvigoration of the organization’s knowledge base
– New employees’ ideas stimulate older employees

• Reinvigoration of the organization’s employee profile
– More diversity, ―fresh faces‖, addition by subtraction

• Low turnover may indicate that employees are unskilled
and undesirable, and high turnover may indicate success
– Consider a successful sports franchise when coaches
are routinely ―poached‖ – what does that say?

…And Potential Negative Effects
• Organizational stagnation due to high rates of turnover
– Cohort effect is accentuated
– Lack of experienced leadership

• ―When good (or great) people leave‖ – what this does
– Those with critical skills and knowledge
– Leaders and innovators
– Professional development is stunted

• Turnover may stifle internal advancement opportunities,
causing dissatisfaction and more turnover


What Are the
Costs of
Turnover?


Cost Category Cost Example
Recruitment Advertising
Recruiters’ salaries
Bonuses
Selection Tests
What Are the Review-board salaries
Investigator salaries

Costs of New employee
Medical, psychological, and drug screening
Payroll and computer personnel

Turnover? Training
New uniforms and equipment
Orientation and field training
Recruit salaries and benefits
Field-trainer salaries
Supervision
In-service training
Operating Overtime to cover vacancies
Loss of productivity as employee departs
Increased further turnover
Peer disruption
Disruption of department operations
Missed deadlines
Increased further turnover
Intangible Loss of knowledge and experience
Disruption or loss of community relationships
Lower morale


Why Do People Leave, Even Now?
• Are newer generations of workers prone to frequent
career changes?

• What is the relationship of salary and benefits to
turnover? How about employee engagement?

• In an age of reduced external training opportunities
and hiring, how can agencies keep career pathways
robust and appealing to new officers?

• Haarr (2005): Four historical theories
• Lynch & Tuckey (2004): Five influences
• Branham’s (2005): 7 reasons why employees leave

Theoretical Explanations
• Job dissatisfaction
– Those who are dissatisfied voluntarily resign

• Burnout theory
– Burnout occurs gradually; stress is cumulative

• Confluency theory
– Specific events trigger turnover when the employee
realizes the organization is unsupportive

• Cognitive dissonance
– Turnover begins in the early stages of an officer’s
career through maladjustment and socialization

Factors Affecting Dropout

• Women and minority officers are more likely to resign
from their positions due to a conflict between the
―idealized‖ impressions of police work they held prior to
employment, and the ―realities‖ of their job and the
socialization process

• Female officers mention gender discrimination as pivotal

• Small number of interviewees (n=34), but the sample
follows recruits for over a year through training and
probationary period; crucial findings for theoretical
development and policy


Five Influences

• The pull of other opportunities elsewhere

• A gap in actual or potential compensation

• Personal or demographic characteristics

• Negative organizational health or culture

• Differential or changing employee needs

• Both overall job satisfaction and agency
strategy/policy are involved here: a 2-way street


“The 7 Hidden Reasons Employees Leave” (1)
• 1. The job or workplace was not what I expected
– Expectations constitute a ―psychological contract‖
– Creating realistic job expectations can alleviate this

• 2. Job and person are mismatched
– Workers are disengaged from their duties because the
work itself feels ―beneath‖ the worker’s perceived value
– The worker may feel unrewarded and underappreciated

• 3. Too little coaching, mentoring, & performance feedback
– There is no ―big picture‖ to the employee’s role, the
direction the organization is going, and how the
employee is performing within a broader context

“The 7 Hidden Reasons Employees Leave” (2)
• 4. Limited opportunities for advancement
– This is crucial for younger, Millennial applicants
– Is it real, or perceived? Is there a difference?

• 5. Feeling devalued and unrecognized
– Does this always have to be related to job task?

• 6. Work-life imbalance creates unwanted stress
– The demands of police work become too demanding

• 7. Loss of trust in leadership
– Frequent turnover at the top, or constant messages
that the organization is unstable or lacks integrity

Are these “7 reasons” exclusive?
• Unmotivated employees
• Lack of skill-building supervision and mentoring
• Culture of turnover: ―I can get my feet wet here‖
• Ambiguous organizational expectations
• Restricted external training opportunities
• Lack of proactive, even symbolic recognition
• Erosion of overall morale due to all of the above: a
―vicious cycle‖
Source: Sprafka & Kranda, 2008; Wilson et al, 2010


“Quitting bosses”
• One of the main reasons people leave is due to ineffective
leadership, or perceived incompetent leadership

• This can take many forms
– Feelings of being undervalued possibly tied to specific
cases of mismanagement
– Failure to recognize specific employee contributions
and employee commitment
– Breaking the psychological contract through poor
employee relations

• May be compounded by the perception that the situation
cannot be resolved and is permanent

Strategies that Combat Turnover (1)
• Conduct ―exit‖/―stay‖ interviews to learn and be
proactive
• Mentoring and ―colleague counsel‖
– Balancing autonomy and mentorship
– Expanded FTO programs
– Mentoring throughout all levels of the agency, not
just patrol, to expand preview
• Educational incentives and ―career ladders‖
– Tuition assistance
– Increase external training opportunities
– Differential pay for advancement such as FTO
– Differential pay for educational attainment
– Build challenges and variety into the career path

• Perks
– Housing assistance in rural and urban areas
– Transportation subsidies and take-home vehicles
– Days-off and other symbolic but helpful recognitions

• Employee engagement strategies
– Provide realistic & helpful feedback
– Increased external training opportunities
– Differential pay for advancement such as FTO
– Differential pay for educational attainment
– Give employees a legitimate voice and role in
decision-making

• Employee recognition
– Meetings, rituals, events, but make them meaningful
– Rewards, even monetary
– High-profile meetings and visits

• Scheduling and job flexibility
– Flexible scheduling
– Job-sharing: creating hours and positions to suit
these employee needs
– Work-life partnerships such as child-care scheduling

Sources: Fitzgerald, 2006; Konrad & Mangel, 2000; Kowal et al., 2008; Levin-
Epstein, 2006; Mitchell et al., 2001; Prince, 2003; Robinson et al., 2006


Embracing Multidirectional Career Paths

• What do these solutions mean for the organization?
– Rethinking police organization's role in the lives
of the employees and families
– Improving the way the career and expectations
are communicated to employees
– Necessitating transparency and equity
– Eliminating unnecessary bureaucracy
– Management and supervisors held accountable
for implementation of solutions to overall
turnover plan
– A new organizational culture
Source: Wilson et al., 2010


Agenda




• Consolidation


Why is Recruitment Important to You?

• Meet staff demand

• Improve performance

• Reduce liability

• Provide for future leadership

• Costly

• Time consuming

• Meeting organizational goals

Who Seeks Police Employment?

• Those inherently interested in the position

• Those who aren’t particularly interested in the
position and view it as
– A general employment opportunity among
others
– Their only employment opportunity

• Those interested in using the position as a stepping
stone to another career option

Why is this important?

Motivations for the Profession
• Job security
• Opportunity to help—―make a difference‖
• Retirement plan
• Health benefits
• Excitement
• Advancement opportunities
• Fight crime
• Comraderie
• Variety of work

Who Do You Seek?
• Mentally and physically fit

• Clean criminal and substance use record

• Educated

• Generate attributes

• General skills

• Long-term commitment
What specific skills/attributes might be desired in
an era of community policing, the threat of
terrorism, globalization, and shrinking resources?

Selection Criteria

• Standards
– Qualifiers
– Disqualifiers

• Targets
– Attributes
– Skills

• Selecting out vs. selecting in


Minimum Education Requirements in Large
Police Departments

Education requirement (n=107) Proportion
Four-year college degree 0.03
Two-year college degree 0.05
46-60 credit hours 0.11
High school diploma or equivalent 0.77
No formal education requirement 0.00

Source: Wilson, Rostker, & Fan, 2010


Minimum Qualifications in
Large Police Departments
General requirement (n=107) Proportion
Psychological test 0.99
Medical test 0.99
Drivers license 0.98
US citizen 0.97
Pass vision test 0.93
Physical agility test 0.91
Any age requirement 0.79
Polygraph test 0.79
No dishonorable discharge from military 0.66
Other 0.37
Local residency 0.29
Police academy graduate 0.15
Non-smoker 0.08
Weight restrictions 0.05
Height restrictions 0.00

Disqualifiers in Large Police Departments
Disqualification (n=107) Proportion
Felony conviction 0.93
Suspended drivers license 0.93
Any serious misdemeanor conviction 0.81
Excessive points on driving record 0.79
Termination from law enforcement 0.72
Felony arrest 0.65
Substance abuse conviction 0.60
Substance abuse arrest within 2 years 0.57
Poor credit score 0.47
Substance abuse arrest 0.46
Felony arrest within 2 years 0.43
Prior drug use 0.32
Any misdemeanor conviction 0.19
Other 0.31


Groups Targeted by Large Police Departments

Recruitment target (n=105) Proportion
Racial/ethnic minorities 0.80
Women 0.74
College graduates 0.67
Military veterans 0.65
Prior police experience 0.53
Foreign language speakers 0.50
None 0.12
Physically disabled 0.02
Other 0.04



Methods of Recruitment in Large Police
Departments—Advertising and Interaction
Recruiting method (n=107) Proportion
Career fairs 0.94
Internet 0.89
Newspapers 0.81
Community organizations 0.79
College outreach 0.75
Walk-in office 0.71
Posters 0.69
Military installations 0.65
Explorer/cadet program 0.63
Radio 0.61
High school outreach 0.52
College internships 0.52
Magazines 0.48
Television 0.45
Billboards 0.34
Mass mailings 0.32
Open house at police department 0.29
Other 0.28
© 2012 Michigan State University Source: Wilson, Rostker, & Fan, 2010 Wilson- 60

Compensation, Population, and Crime
Influence the Supply of Applicants

MODEL: 2007 Police Applicants (ln)
Core Econometric Model Coefficient
Starting salary (ln) 0.869**
Population (ln) 0.786***
Average annual community wage (ln) 0.135
Unemployment rate (ln) 0.353
Vacancies (ln) 0.001
N = 70, R-Square = .54 *p ≤.05, **p ≤.10, ***p ≤.001

Property, violent, and total crime also was
positively associated with applications


…But Little Evidence That
Police Strategies Mattered
• Modeling illustrated that strategies are consistently
unassociated with applications

• Tested various samples
– all, white, minority, male, and female

• Tested various strategies
– Number of recruiters and recruiting budget
– Advertising
– Incentives


Recruit Rank-Order of Motivations
for their Application
Top 10 Remaining 11
Friend/family who works/ worked in same agency Military installation
Friend/family who works/ worked in different agency Radio ad
Internet ad Explorer and/or cadets program
Friend/family not in law enforcement College outreach
Experience working with the agency in another capacity College internships
Newspaper ad Walk-in-office
Open house at police
Career fair
department
Billboard Community organization
Television ad Magazine/journal ad
Posters Mass mailing
High school outreach
Source: Castaneda & Ridgeway, 2010


Methods of Recruitment in Large Police
Departments—Incentives
Recruitment incentive (n=106) Proportion
Uniform allowance 0.95
Salary during training 0.82
Reimbursement for college courses 0.73
Pay rate by assignment 0.62
Salary increase for college degree 0.56
Paid academic expenses 0.45
Take-home car 0.41
Tuition 0.13
Health club membership 0.13
Signing bonus 0.09
Mortgage discount 0.09
Other cash 0.08
Academy graduation bonus 0.07
Relocations expenses 0.05
Schedule preference for taking courses 0.05
Housing stipend 0.00
Other 0.39
None 0.01
© 2012 Michigan State University Source: Wilson, Rostker, & Fan, 2010 Wilson- 64

Reflecting the Community
• General consensus is police should reflect community
– President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and
Administration of Justice (1967)
– Kerner Commission (1968)
– Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies (1999)
• Standard 31.2.1: ―The agency has ethnic and
gender composition in the sworn law enforcement
ranks in approximate proportion to the makeup of
the available work force in the law enforcement
agency’s service community, or a recruitment
plan pursuant to standard 31.2.2‖
– Nationally representative survey of Americans
(Weitzer & Tuch, 2004)


Why Should the Police Reflect the
Community?
• There are circumstances where race/ethnicity could
enhance performance (?)
– NOT according to the National Research
Council: ―[W]hatever influence race and gender
may exert on behavior is overwhelmed by the
unifying effects of occupational socialization‖
(Skogan & Frydl, 2004, p. 147)


Why Should the Police Reflect the
Community?
• There are circumstances where race/ethnicity could
enhance performance (?)
• There should be equal opportunity for all,
regardless of race and gender to become officers
– ―A department can show convincingly that it
does not practice racial discrimination by
recruiting minority-group officers, assigning
them fairly to duties…, and by pursuing
promotion policies that are scrupulously fair…‖
(President’s Commission, 1967, p. 261).


According to the 2000 Census


How Well Do the Police Reflect the
Community?
• Historically, police largely comprised of white
males, but has been changing over time

© 2012 Michigan State University Source: LEMAS, 2007 Wilson- 69

Race/Ethnicity Representation Varies by
Community Size

Asian/ American
Black/African Hispanic/ Pacific Indian/Alaska Multi-
Population served White American Latino Islander Native race
All sizes 74.7% 11.9 10.3 2 0.7 0.3
1,000,000 or more 56 17.6 22.9 3.2 0.3 0
500,000 - 999,999 60.6 24.1 9.3 4.1 0.4 1.6
250,000 - 499,999 69.5 16.5 11.2 2 0.6 0.1
100,000 - 249,999 73.7 13.4 9.1 2.6 0.9 0.3
50,000 - 99,999 83.6 7 7.5 1.4 0.3 0.3
25,000 - 49,999 88.2 5 5.1 0.9 0.6 0.2
10,000 - 24,999 87.5 5.6 5.1 0.6 1 0.2
2,500 - 9,999 87.9 5.1 4.4 0.6 1.8 0.1
Under 2,500 88.3 5.8 3 0.1 2.3 0.5
Source: LEMAS, 2007


Gender Representation Varies by
Community Size
Male (%) Female (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Source: LEMAS, 2007

What does all of this variation mean for recruitment?

Recruitment “Messaging”

• Motivations for the profession
– Service, variety, excitement, benefits, etc.

• Incentives
– Signing bonus, tuition reimbursement, etc.

• Image of the department and profession
– Brand and story—what makes it unique


Compare Recruiting Strategies Online

• LAPD, LVMPD, Tacoma, Orlando, NJSP & your own
• What is your first reaction?
• How easy are they to navigate?
• How comprehensive is the information?
• What images are evoked?
• What do you think it would be like to work there?
• Which one sparks your interest most and why?
• What might explain the differences?

Agenda




• Consolidation


Public Safety
Consolidation:
Ready or Not, Here it
Comes…


Agenda

• Context and overview

• Public safety models

• Prevalence

• Perceived benefits

• Perceived costs

• Keys to success

• From anecdote to evidence

Our Decentralized Law Enforcement System

• About 18,000 state and local law enforcement
agencies in the US
– Much different from other countries: Canada 80,
England 40, Japan 50

• Approximately 765,000 sworn personnel

• About 49% of agencies employ less than 10 full-
time officers

• Two out of three officers work for agencies with 100
or more sworn officers


Fragmentation is Good…

• Local control

• Community reflection

• Career choices

• Bigger is not necessarily better


… and Bad

• Offenders do not recognize jurisdictional
boundaries

• Crime control strategy should be more regional

• Peer emulation

• Duplication of administration, facilities,
communications, equipment, etc.

• Requires more resources/police officers


Why is the Provision of Public Safety So
Challenging?
• Generally the largest portion of a community’s budget

• Costs have risen substantially over time

• Personnel costs typically represent eighty to ninety
percent of a police or fire budget

• Collective bargaining agreements often reduce
management flexibility (e.g., minimum staffing)

• Public safety employees have garnered public support
for maintaining the status quo

The Profound Effect of the Economy

• For many, standard responses—that is, cuts at the
margin—have not been enough
• Traditional reluctance to cut public safety has given way
to dramatic and unprecedented decisions—all options
are on the table
– Hiring freezes, lay-offs, furloughs, ―org death,‖…
• Considerable experimentation in the substantive delivery
of public safety services


“Experimentation” has Taken Many Forms
• Functional Consolidation: Two or more agencies
combine functional units like communications, crime
lab, or SWAT team
• Regionalization: A number of agencies combine to
police a geographic area
• Metropolitan: Two or more agencies serving
overlapping jurisdictions join together
• City-County Consolidation: A city and county
consolidate their entire governments
• Contracting: Small and medium-sized communities
contract with a larger agency for police services
• Local Merger: Two separate agencies form a single, new
entity

Functional Consolidation

• Combined Dispatch

• Regional Drug and Vehicle Theft Groups

• Major Crime Task Forces
– Will County, IL: 37 agencies

• Major Crash Assistance Team (MCAT)

• Regional SWAT Team


Regional Policing

• Northern York County Regional Police Department
– Formed in 1972
– 2 Boroughs, 6 Townships
– 50 sworn officers
– Each municipality selects a commissioner

• About 30 regional agencies in PA


Metropolitan Police

• Nashville

• Las Vegas

• Louisville

• Indianapolis


City County Consolidated

• UNI-Gov in Indianapolis

• Jacksonville - Duval County Florida

• City and County of Broomfield Colorado
– City of Broomfield and portions of four counties


Contracting

• Generally offered by sheriff

• King County Washington
– Emphasis on local control

• Los Angeles County
– 40 cities, 2M residents

• RCMP


Pros and Cons of Contracting

Pro Con

Lower cost Loss of local control

Specific services can be obtained Quality of service may be diminished

May provide higher quality service May have to compete for resources

May be better trained and equipped Costs will increase

County absorbs risk Difficult to reestablish department

What happens to employees?


Local Merger

• Winter Park/Fraser Police Colorado 2005
– Winter Park serves as the managing partner
– Winter Park is responsible for paying all bills
– Winter Park is responsible for managing all
employment matters, insurance, and other
related matters
– All personnel are employees of Winter Park
– The Police Chief reports directly to the Fraser
Town Manager and Winter Park Town Manager
– All police officers are sworn to serve and
protect both municipalities


Agenda



• Prevalence


• Perceived costs



There is Considerable Variation in Public
Safety Consolidation

• Full integration of police and fire services
• Cross-trained public safety officers
Full • Consolidated management and command

• Partial integration of police and fire services
• Cross-trained public safety officers exist alongside
separate functional personnel
Partial • Consolidation occurs within administrative ranks

• Police and fire services are not integrated
• Consolidation generally limited to the chief executive
Nominal


Highland Park, Texas
Est. 1977 (with roots to 1913), Pop. 9,000

Director of Public
Safety

Office of the Operations Support Services
Director Bureau Bureau

Community Criminal
Communications Administrative
Relations A Shift Investigations Training Division
Division Services Division
Division Division

Accreditation/ Administration EMS Education
B Shift Investigators Dispatch
Crime Analyst Secretary Contractor

Support Services
C Shift Property Room Alarm Services
Officer

School Crossing
Court Bailiff Records Clerk
Guards

• 222 Index crimes in 2010 (2,373 per 100,000 residents)
• 38 of 54 PSO’s cross-trained police, fire, and paramedic
• PSO’s work 24-hour shifts—rotating functions

Sunnyvale, California
Est. 1950, Pop. 140,000 (230,000 daytime)
Chief

Mgmt Analyst
Internal Budget
Deputy Chief Deputy Chief Affairs Deputy Chief
Police Fire Special Operations Personnel
Services

Captain Police Captain Police Captain Fire
Team A Team B Team A Captain Captain
Special Operations Strategic Services

Police Admin Captain Fire
Traffic Safety Lieutenant Team B Vehicle Abatement Communications
Office of
Captain Fire Emergency Recruitment
Team C Services

Fire Env. Neighborhood Training
Services Preservation Police/Fire/EMS

Investigations Grants Licenses &
• 2,396 Index crimes in 2010 (1,787 per 100,000 Permits
residents) Crime Prevention Records/Property/
Evidence
• All 195 PSO’s cross-trained police, fire, and EMT Animal
Control
• Police personnel work 11-hour shifts, fire
personnel work 24-hour shifts—assigned functions

Agenda



• Prevalence


• Perceived costs



Consolidation Exists Throughout the US, and
Appears to be on the Rise
• Currently, we’ve identified 132 agencies
that have consolidated public safety at
least nominally
– Spread across the US
• Michigan leads with 56, next most
is South Carolina with 9
– Small and medium-sized agencies
– Rural and urban communities
– Form of implementation varies
This is a living list that frequently changes

Many have Abandoned Consolidation…Yet
Many Others are Actively Considering It
• We’ve identified several agencies that have abandoned
consolidation—there are likely more
– Various reasons cited
• Expanded responsibilities resulted in perceived
need for greater specialization
• Perceived need to increase communication and
stature of each function within city government
• We’ve identified several communities throughout the
US considering the model—there are likely more
– Consolidations are regularly occurring
It’s critical to understand the contexts of both
successes and failures

Agenda



• Prevalence


• Perceived costs



Consolidation May Increase Efficiency
• Responding officer can comprehensively assess and
direct response to situations
• Reduced total need for line staff
• More staff continuously available to respond to calls
• Fire industry is changing from fire suppression to EMS
– From 1983-2010, fires fell by 43% while fire fighters
increased 48% (and fire departments increased 7%)
– From 1980-2010, medical aid increased 260%
• Reduced duplication of administrative, communications,
and physical infrastructure
Example
Traverse City employs 56 fire and police personnel, 43% more than the
average public safety department in Michigan communities of a similar size

Consolidation May Promote
Community Policing and Service Quality
• Fully, comprehensively trained professional on scene of
every incident
• Increased access to staff and flexibility in its deployment
• Freed up time for officers to work in the community
• Expanded role of police officers to include activities
generally favored by the public
– Satisfaction of fire services often greater than police
services, and fire profession is often the most
respected
• Expanded role attracts officers with a broader skill set
• Through improved efficiency, consolidation may keep
community policing activities from being reduced and
eliminated

Consolidation May Enhance Comprehensive
Community Safety and Homeland Security
Preparedness
• Enhanced communication
• Unity of command structure
• All-inclusive emergency response
and planning
• Comprehensive training


Agenda



• Prevalence


• Perceived costs

• Keys to success


Perceived Costs to Consolidation
• Up-front costs can be prohibitive
– Increased training and backfilling staff during training
– Branding, uniforms, equipment and vehicles
– Immediate cost savings often not realized
• In-service training requirements to maintain certifications
• Contracts
– Labor and facilities
• Reorganization pain
– Planning for structure, positions, and people
• Perceived or actual decline in service quality
• Exacerbation of existing management problems

Opposition to Consolidation
• Organized labor
– In select areas, organized labor has succeeded in
blocking consolidation efforts by changing local and
state statutes, charters and pension regulations

• Citizens
– Some locales have exhibited fears of a deterioration
in either police or fire services, or both

• Administrators
– Cultural and organizational changes needed may run
up against opposition
– Confusion and ambiguity about administrative roles


Agenda



• Prevalence


• Perceived costs

• Keys to success


Why Do Consolidations Fail? (1)
• Citizens value local control

• Most public safety executives and staff are content
with their organizations and see no particular benefit
to change—personal stake

• Organizations, even small ones, tend to place great
emphasis on their unique identity—culture matters

• Strong opposition from employee groups

• Expected cost savings are often not realized,
particularly in the short-run


Why Do Consolidations Fail? (2)
• Public perception soured over time/decline in service
quality

• Perception of need for greater specialization due to
changing workload

• Perception of need to elevate public safety services
within city government


Keys to Success

• Focus on quality

• Political support

• Inclusive planning

• Time for
implementation


Agenda



• Prevalence


• Perceived costs

• Keys to success


Existing Information is Problematic

Despite the
tremendous need,
practitioners and
decision-makers have
few systematic, data-
driven lessons

• What we know is largely anecdotal
• Current knowledge is based upon scattered and
dated case studies
• Many questions remain about the options for and
feasibility of public safety consolidation, and the
factors associated with success and failure

Introducing the New Research Institute on
Police Consolidation and Shared Services
(RIPCaSS)

• Administered by the MSU

• Staffed with seasoned,
well-respected scholars


The Goals of RIPCaSS Are Lofty But Critical

• Develop concrete, research-based lessons about
the nature, structure, function and implementation
of all forms of consolidation and shared services
within local context for understanding their short
and long-term costs and benefits
– When do they work and when don’t they?
• Promote fact-based awareness and decision-
making
• Serve as a resource


Many Field-Driven, Multi-dimensional
Activities Are Already Underway (1)
• Creating an online portal for existing resources,
information and networking

• Case studies of consolidated and deconsolidated
public safety agencies

• Developing a national public safety agency census
• Residential opinion survey of public safety
satisfaction

• Media content analysis of public safety
consolidation communication strategies

Many Field-Driven, Multi-dimensional
Activities Are Already Underway (2)
• Focus group summit and case studies on merging
policies in consolidations

• Review of facilitating labor-management
consolidation discussions

• Analysis of utilizing non-sworn staff
• Trainings, technical assistance and outreach


We’ll Leverage and Develop Numerous
Resources for Law Enforcement Stakeholders
• BOLOs
• Executive primers
• Practitioner guides
• Training webinars
• Professional and
journal articles

• Various other
publication and
training resources

Our Experience Thus Far…
• Consolidation is a divisive issue and stakeholders fall
along a continuum
– Adamant opposition
• Assumptions and misunderstandings are common
• Positions frequently based on qualitative
judgment/emotion as opposed to facts/evidence
– Unaware—blissfully or frantically
– Very supportive within context of practical realities
• Many examples of it working
• Skeptics and champions have made themselves known
• A tremendous need exists for resources to inform
discourse and decision-making – regular calls for help

Thank you!

For more information, contact

Jeremy M. Wilson
jwilson@msu.edu
(517)353-9474 Wilson- 116

Thank you!

For more information, contact

Jeremy M. Wilson
jwilson@msu.edu
(517)353-9474 Wilson- 117

Police workforce planning in a dynamic environment

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