As the life sciences evolve, theories of unidirectional effects often get replaced by theories involving cyclic or reciprocal effects. One area where effects have been considered unidirectional until now is trait theory. In fact, the Big Five are generally posited to be stable, and when change is discussed, a trait is considered as either an agent of change or a patient of change, but never both simultaneously. With regard to well-being, traits are almost always treated as agents of change. We recommend a revision to this model, by putting forth a reciprocal model of causality between well-being and traits. Using panel data from the Midlife in the United States random digit dialing sample of adults (N = 1602), we show that there is a reciprocal loop between psychological well-being and the Big Five, with extraversion and neuroticism being the most important factors on the trait side. These data call into question the set point theory of well-being, and they indicate that Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build mechanism of positive affect operates on larger time scales. The notable role of extraversion and neuroticism suggest that the attachment–avoidance system predicts exposure to positive vs. negative life events, and this system is in turn modulated by exposure to positive vs. negative events.

1. Psychological Well-Being and
the Big Five: A Reciprocal Story
Chris C. Martin & Corey L. M. Keyes
Dept. of Sociology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
Lifespan Social–Personality Preconference 2013
Fourteenth Annual Meeting of SPSP, New Orleans, LA
chris.martin.e@gmail.com

2. Introduction
As the life sciences progress:
 Decline in theories of unidirectional effects
 Rise in theories of cyclic and reciprocal effects
 e.g., biological coevolution, gene-culture
coevolution, family systems
Personality psychology is a “late bloomer.”

3. Longitudinal Trait Change: A History
First Generation (Trait theorists)
Emphasized stability, not change, to establish validity
Did not use longitudinal methods
Second Generation:
Change over time was studied, with a focus on
stability, maturity, and individual differences
Third Generation:
Life events, genetics, sociogenomics, reciprocal
causation

4. First Generation
Context
Psychoanalytic theory preceded trait theory
Studying traits required theoretical justification
Basis of traits was lexical
Arguments About Stability
Critics of traits emphasized situational variance
Counter-arguments

5. Second Generation
Pattern: Gradual change from stability to change as
focus of research
Three Strains:
Stability and Rank-Order Consistency
-- Quantifying stability over the lifespan’s segments
Maturation and Mean-Level Change
-- Uncovering common maturation processes
Individual Differences
-- Examining heterogeneity of trajectories
--Life events

6. Third Generation: Causal Exploration
Explanations of both personality consistency and
change:
Personality Consistency (Roberts & Caspi, 2003)
--Genetic effects
-- Attraction, selection, evocation, etc.
-- Meta-process: identity clarity
Personality Change (Trzesniewski et al., 2003)
-- Roles, social learning
-- Work experiences, Relationship
experiences, Historical/Political Factors

7. Recent Research I
Specht, Egloss, & Schmukle (2012) Examining
mechanisms of personality maturation: The impact of
life satisfaction on the Big Five
--German sample
--Increases in life satisfaction covaried with positive
increases in traits
--Increase fit to environment may drive up
satisfaction, which may then motivate personality
change
--Personality change may increase social rewards, which
increase satisfaction
Limitations
--Only life satisfaction was measured

8. Recent Research II
Hill, Turiano, Mroczek, & Roberts (2012) Examining
concurrent and longitudinal relations between
personality traits and social well-being in adulthood
--American sample (MIDUS)
--Incorporated four facets of social well-being
--Latent growth curve analyses
--Discovered covariation of social well-being and Big Five
trait development

9. Overview of Current Study
--Study of covariation between trait change and well-
being change
--Incorporate three types of well-being
Emotional Wellbeing (EWB): Pertains to affective
state (PA, SWLS)
Psychological Wellbeing (PWB): Pertains to
existential coping
Social Wellbeing (SWB): Pertains to integration and
connectedness

10. Psychological Well-Being (Ryff)
--Based on eudaimonia, an Aristotelian concept
--Draws on conceptions from
Erikson, Jung, Allport, Maslow, Rogers, and others
--Dimensions are:
• Self-acceptance
• Purpose in Life
• Environmental Mastery
• Positive Relations
• Personal Growth
• Autonomy

11. Social Well-Being
--Based on sociological conceptions of well-being
--Draws on Durkheim, Seeman, and Marx
--Dimensions are:
• Social integration
• Social acceptance
• Social contribution
• Social actualization
• Social coherence

12. Mid-Life Development in the U.S. (MIDUS)
--MIDUS I (1995-96) and MIDUS II (2004-2006)
-- Non-institutionalized, English-speaking
adults, ages 25-74
-- Random digit dialing led to phone interview and
questionnaire

13. Measures of Traits, Well-Being, Environment
Big Five: Combined 25 adjectives from multiple
scales (Lachman & Weaver, 1997)
Emotional Well-Being: 7 PA items, 1 SWLS item
Psychological Well-Being: Ryff's Scales of
Psychological Well-Being
Social Well-Being: Keyes’s Scale of Social Well-
Being
Perceived Neighborhood Quality

14. Perceived Neighborhood Quality/Health (α = .68)
A. I feel safe being out alone in my neighborhood during the
daytime
B. I feel safe being out alone in my neighborhood at night.
C. I could call on a neighbor for help if I needed it
D. People in my neighborhood trust each other
High scores reflect positive perception of home &
neighborhood (Keyes, 1998).
In MIDUS I:
Range = 1–4. Mean = 3.4. SD = .5.
Skewness = -1.1

15. Data Analysis
Used difference Scores to measure longitudinal
change in traits and well-being
Difference scores are useful when only two
time points are used
(e.g., Graham & Lachman, 2012; Human et
al., 2012; Turiano et al., 2012; see Rogosa &
Willett, 1983)

16. Results: Extraversion (T2) as Outcome

17. Results: Psych. Well-Being (T2) as Outcome

18. Results: Summary
Change Scores
change in change in change in
EWB PWB SWB
Extraversion *** *** **
Neuroticism *** *** ***
Trait
Conscientiousness ***
Agreeableness + *** **
Openness *** **
change in change in change in change in change in
Extra Neuro Cons Agree Open
EWB *** *** **
*** *** **
Wellbeing
__Life satisfaction
__PA *** ***
__NA *** *** * *** ***
PWB (Psychological well…) *** *** *** ***
SWB (Social well…) *** *** * **

19. Moderator: Perceived Neighborhood Quality
(Using MODPROBE Macro in SPSS [Hayes;afhayes.com])
Interaction ΔR2 Interaction ΔR2
Extraversion EWB (Emotional well…)
Traits (EWB
change)
Neuroticism Extraversion
Conscientiousness Neg* Neuroticism
Well-Beings (predicted by Trait change)
Agreeableness Conscientiousness *
Openness Agreeableness *
Extraversion Openness *
Traits (PWB
change)
Neuroticism PWB (Psychological well…)
Conscientiousness Extraversion
Agreeableness * * Neuroticism
Openness Conscientiousness
Extraversion Agreeableness * *
Traits (SWB
change)
Neuroticism Openness *
Conscientiousness * * SWB (Social well…)
Agreeableness * + Extraversion *
Openness * Neuroticism
Conscientiousness *
Agreeableness * *
Openness * *

20. Discussion
--"Healthy" maturation on a trait is associated
with positive well-being outcomes
--Reciprocally, growth in well-being is associated
with "healthier" levels on health traits.

21. Approach and Avoidance
Extraversion and neuroticism are analogs of
approach and avoidance (Elliot & Thrash, 2010)
Functions are appetitive goal pursuit (planned)
and avoidance of threats (typically unplanned)
Approach goals are associated with greater well-
being than avoidance goals

22. Similarities with Other Research
Upward focus:
--Frederickson's Broaden and Build Hypothesis &
upward spiral dynamics
Homeostatis Focus
--Charles's Strength and Vulnerability Integration
--”Set point" theory and hedonic treadmill
(Diener, Lucas, and Scollon, 2009)

23. Pragmatic Nature of Traits
--State extraversion is for accomplishing goals,
according to whole-trait theory (McCabe and
Fleeson, 2012)
--"Extraversion appears to facilitate people's goals
to have fun, to connect with people, to entertain
people, to stir things up, and to be a leader,
among many others”

24. Limitations
Observer ratings would have improved trait
measurement.
Multiple-wave studies would have helped for
latent curve analysis (Singer & Willett, 2003).

25. References
Rogosa, D. R., & Willett, J. B. (1983). Demonstrating the
Fredrickson, B. L. (in press). Positive emotions broaden
reliability the difference score in the measurement of change.
and build. In E. Ashby Plant & P.G. Devine (Eds.),
Journal of Educational Measurement, 20, 335-343. doi:
Advances on Experimental Social Psychology, Volume
10.1111/j.1745-3984.1983.tb00211.x
47.
Ryff, C. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on
Graham, E. K., & Lachman, M. E. (2012). Personality the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality
stability is associated with better cognitive performance and Social Psychology, 57, 1069-1081.
in adulthood: Are the stable more able? Journal of
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Sciences. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbr149 Flourishing students: A longitudinal study on positive
emotions, personal resources, and study engagement. The
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Psychology Quarterly, 61, 121-140.
Salanova, M., Llorens, S., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2011). Yes, I can, I
Lachman, M., & Weaver, S. L. (1997). The Midlife feel good, and I just do it!" On gain cycles and spir
Development Inventory (MIDI) personality scales: Scale
construction and scoring (Tech. Rep. No.1). Waltham, Turiano, A., Pitzer, L. M., Armour, C., Karlamangla, A., Ryff, C. D.,
MA: Brandeis University, Department of Psychology. & Mroczek, D. K.
(2012). Personality trait level and change as predictors of
health outcomes: Findings from a national study of Americans
McCabe and Fleeson, 2012, What Is Extraversion For?
(MIDUS). The Journals of Gerontology Series B:
Integrating Trait and Motivational Perspectives and
Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. doi:
Identifying the Purpose of Extraversion. Also perhaps
10.1093/geronb/gbr072
McCabe's dissertation: ""The Distinctiveness of
Extraversion and Conscientiousness through Goal
Pursuit: A Test of the Subcomponent-State Function
Theory""