Participatory development – should it be saved

Independent study project in Development Studies

Date: 19/04/2013
Title

Participatory Development – should it be saved?

Written by: Aleksandra Ciurlik
Student no: 299890
Supervisor: Michael Jennings
Word count: 9,538

Aleksandra Ciurlik

BA African Studies and Development Studies

299890

Abstract

The mainstream development institutions, such as the World Bank, have been propagating
participatory development practices for more than twenty years now. Nevertheless, one of the most
important publications on the subject 'Participation: the New Tyranny' presents a radical view that
these practices conceal and reinforce oppressions and injustices in their various manifestations.
Despite the fact that this argumentation indicated many significant issues related to the subject of
participation, in my opinion contradictions of the book are significant enough to question conclusions
it draws. Despite the fact that many scholars extended the debate started by 'The New Tyranny', little
was written about the weaknesses of this book in a way that it could change the development
discourse in a meaningful way. The aim of this essay was to show that participatory development can
play a positive role not only in benefiting the recipients of various projects, but also in improving
development practices in general. This was achieved through analysing different manifestations of
participation, examining the way various agencies perceive success and the motives of choosing
participatory practices. The Barka Foundation was presented as the organization that managed to
develop and implement groundbreaking participatory programmes.

193 words

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Table of Contents
List of abbreviations used…...........................................................................................4
Section I – Introduction...................................................................................................5
Section II – Methodology................................................................................................7
Section III – Summary of leading literature on participation
Spreading of participatory ideas ...................................................................................9
Participation as tyranny..............................................................................................10
Transformational role of participation.........................................................................11
Case studies...............................................................................................................13

Section IV – Barka: history and activities...................................................................15
Section V – What does participation mean?................................................................17
Section VI – What does define success?.......................................................................23
Section VII – Why participation?.................................................................................27
Section VIII – Conclusions............................................................................................31
Bibliography...................................................................................................................34

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List of abbreviations used
GPAF: Global Poverty Action Fund
INISE: International Network for Innovative Social Entrepreneurship
KCA: Kenya Community Association
KBCL: full name unknown, national fertilizer manufacturing cooperative
KRCS: the Kenya Red Cross Society
KRIBP: the Kribhco Indo-British Farming Project
MDGs: Millennium Development Goals
ODA: Overseas Development Administration
PD: Participatory Development
PGR: Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne (communist State Agricultural farm)
PRA: Participatory Rural Appraisal
SHG: Self Help Group
WB: World Bank

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Section I – Introduction

The Barka Foundation has been active in Poland for more than twenty years now. The
organization's focus is placed on work with the people on the margin of the society. During the last five
years, Barka's programmes have spread into many countries of the European Union. My interest in the
organization's work began once it started working on international development programmes in
cooperation with the North West African Forum. I became particularly interested in what this Polish
foundation could offer to the citizens of various African countries, so I decided to approach it. Every
time I visited Barka, whether it was in Poland or England, I had a chance to speak to its leaders – ex
homeless and alcoholics who received help from the organization and now are a part of it. And every
time I spoke with any of them, I would hear a similar story. I've been through a lot in my life and I took
part in the programmes of different organizations. I went through rehab many times – mainly in the
winter, just to get a shelter – and then I came back to drinking again. The moment I was sent to Barka,
I was planning to escape as soon as possible. But then I liked it and I've stayed till today. No other
organization does anything as meaningful as Barka. 1 It made me wonder whether Barka was really so
unique and if it was – why would that be? This made me start an ethnographic research about the
organization and the most striking thing I could notice while observing its work is how close its
workers were to the recipients of their projects. Every recipient of the projects was treated individually
and many of them were directly involved with Barka's work. Participation, I thought, was the reason of
the organization's success. However, the literature on participation that I encountered was not as
optimistic about it as I was. Hence my attempt to analyse it closely.

1 Informant 1. 12/09/2012

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Development theorists and practitioner have written quite a lot on PD. One of the most
significant works that every scholar writing on participation referred to is 'Participation: the New
Tyranny' edited by Cooke and Kothari. One of the most striking sentences I came across while reading
this book was any meaningful attempt to save participatory development requires a sincere of the
possibility that it should not be save2. Since the book was publish, scholars have referred to it in many
ways. Some of them, such as Hickey and Mohan or Williams attempted to extend the debate on
participation by indicating transformational potential of participation. However, while reading 'The
New Tyranny' I came across several contradictions of presented arguments that have not been pointed
by the other scholars and that could change completely the discourse presented throughout the book.
This is why the aim of this research will be to analyse and question the arguments of 'The New
Tyranny', and in this way I will show that PD actually should be saved. The case study of Barka will be
presented along my critique not just in order to facilitate my argumentation, but to see whether the
organization's projects have overcome the obstacles related to implementation of participatory
approaches.

After presenting the methodology used throughout the research in Section II, Section III of this
work will describe the main theoretical contributions to the subject of participation. This will lay the
foundations for further parts of the research, as the analysis of theory will be based on comparing it
with the case studies. Section IV will focus briefly on the activities of Barka as to show the complexity
of the programmes led by the organization and place its further analysis in broader context. The key
points of this work will be made in sections from V to VII. These sections will at the same time point
the contradictions of the argumentation presented by 'The New Tyranny', analyse the work of Barka
and provide the answer to the research question. First, Section V will analyse the different forms that
2 Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma, 'The Case for Participation as Tyranny' in Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma. 'Participation:
the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001. p.15

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participation might take in order to point at the problems of treating this idea as a fixed concept.
Section VI will then analyse the argument presented in 'The New Tyranny' about the problem of
defining success in order to show that this points also to the limitations of the analysis presented in
Cooke and Kothari's book. Next section will focus of the causal relations between PD and the dubious
practices of development agencies. This will show that focusing on participation as the agent
legitimizing doubtful practices may not lead to the solution of the core of the problems.

Section II – Methodology

Written sources that I used could be divided into two categories. First, the books and journal
articles analysing theoretical assumptions of the concept of participation. Second, materials describing
the work of Barka. This consisted mainly of books published by Barka, reports written by outside
observers or Barka's workers, official documents and power point presentations relevant to the work of
the organization that were passed to me by its workers. I also watched the movies made about or by
Barka. One of the case studies that this research analyses in detail is David Mosse's description of a
development programme in rural India as a contribution to 'Participation: the New Tyranny'. Despite
the fact that I use this case as a base for analysis of the argument representing this particular book, my
study often refers to Mosse's article in 'A Moral Critique of Development' 3 as the description put in this
publication is more detailed and explanatory.

The other, more important part of my work, was conducting ethnographic research. Due to
several difficulties, mainly time limitations, I could not spend as much time with Barka as I wanted.
Still, I managed to visit the Social Integration Centre in Poznań. I attended the meetings of Barka UK
3 Quarles van Ufford, Philip; Kumar Giri, Ananta. 'A Moral Critique of Development: in Search of Global
Responsibilities'. Routledge, 2003

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in their office. I also went to the meeting at the Polish Embassy where three of the organizations
working with the homeless of London, including Barka UK, were presenting their work. I went to the
fund raising party together with the representatives of Barka. I also conducted interviews with Tomasz
Sadowski – the founder of Barka, Ewa Sadowska - Chief Executive of Barka UK and Baiba Dhidha
Mjidho - Chairman of Kenya Community Association (organization based in Liverpool and working
with Barka on the Kanini Kaseo Project). This allowed me to have many conversations with the
workers and leaders of Barka, and to have an insight into the way the organization worked.

I think that a general problem about conducting a research described by Melissa Parker is very
relevant. In her text about female circumcision, she describes the publications of academics who have
explicitly stated their thoughts and feelings in their 'scientific' articles. 4 As a way of dealing with
issue, she described her story and involvement in the topic she had researched in order to show the
readers of her work in which ways her feelings might have influenced her analysis. Even though my
work does not consider such an emotional subject, I still think it is relevant to state the researcher's (in
this case – my) personal perspective towards the subject as, whether one admits it or not, it might
affect the way in which the research is conducted, thus the results.. For me conducting a research about
Barka was a unique experience. The amount of help received from every single person I interacted
with was immense. I received not only what I asked for (time, documents, opinions) but also a great
amount of personal involvement. Even though I visited the offices of Barka both in Poznań and in
London, all of the interviews took place at the homes of the interviewed. Each time I was welcomed
warmly, given food and a lot of attention. When I went to Liverpool, I was hosted by the Chairman of
Kenya Community Association and his wife who sheltered me for one night in their living room. With
both Ewa Sadowska and Baiba Dhidha Mjidho, I have been in constant email contact as they have
been informing me about the news and sending any papers I requested. I am aware that they made this
4 Parker, Melissa. ‘Rethinking Female Circumcision’. Africa, 65(4), pp.506-523, 1995, p. 516

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research so much easier for me and I feel grateful for all these gestures. This is also why I consciously
made a decision of writing this text in first person. I find it more honest to write in this way as I do not
want to make an impression that it was a highly objective being, not just a human, who wrote this
analysis. Then I leave it to the readers to decide how trustworthy it is.

Section III – Summary of leading literature on participation

Spreading of participatory ideas

The idea of participation got popularized among the development theorists and practitioners after
publishing of Paulo Freire's 'Pedagogy of the Oppressed' in the late 1960s. In his book, Brazilian
educator, focused on the interaction between action and reflection that constitutes the process of
'conscientization'. He criticized paternalistic attitues towards students and what he called the 'banking'
concept of education, based on the premise that knowledge is a fixed entity. Freire, on the contrary,
claimed that learners should be treated as co-creators of knowledge. 5 He stated that Attempting to
liberate the oppressed without their reflective participation in the act of liberation is to treat them as
objects which must be saved from a burning building; it is to lead them into a populist pitfall and
transform them into masses which can be manipulated.6 In the late 1980s and early 1990s these ideas
were translated into models of development practice. The emphasis then was put on participation in
setting development projects, theoretically aimed at empowering the indigenous people, capturing their
knowledge and ensuring the sustainability and efficiency of the interventions. 7 Robert Chambers, a
WB scholar, was one of the leading promoters of PD. He contributed significantly to the development
5 Dagron, Alfonso Gumucio; Tufte, Thomas. 'Communication for Social Change Anthology: Historical and
Contemporary Readings.' CFSC Consortium, INC, 2006
6 Freire, Paulo. 'Pedagogy of the Opressed: 30th Anniversary Edition', Continuum International Publish Group, 2000,
p. 65
7 Carpentier, Nico. Media and Participation: A Side of Ideological-democratic Struggle'. Intellect Books, 2011

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of the idea of PRA that describes a growing family of approaches and methods to enable local people
to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act. (…) In PRA it
[information] is more shared and owned by the local people. 8 According to Chambers, PRA was
supposed to mean a move away from 'top down' development projects and institutions towards the
power structures that will be led by a series of personal, proffessional and institutional change. In order
to facilitate these goals, several tools were developed, such as mapping and modeling, transect walks,
matrix scoring, seasonal calendars, trend and change analysis, well being and wealth ranking and
grouping, and analytical diagraming.9 Chambers' publications, promoted by WB, contributed towards
the wide spread of development programmes based on the PRA models. However, the critics of these
models emerged along with their popularization.

Participation as tyranny

One of the most significant publications criticizing PD was 'Participation: the New Tyranny?'
edited by by Bill Cooke and Uma Kothari. Authors of the book defined tyranny as illegitimate and/or
unjust exercise of power10 and moved on describing how PD facilitates it. Eleven chapters of the book
written by different authors come together to conclude that processes of participation [such as] sharing knowledge, negotiating power relationships, political activism and so on – can both conceal
and reinforce oppressions and injustices in their various manifestations.11 The authors stress the
limitations of the previous criticism of participatory approaches that had focused mainly on technical
limitations of the method or on the workings of the practitioner. Cooke and Kothari, however, claim
that there are more overarching and fundamental problems with participatory approaches to
8 Chambers, Robert. 'The Origins and Practice of Participatory Rural Apprisal.' World Development, Vol. 22, No 7,
1994, p. 953
9 Ibid. p. 953
10 Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma. Op. Cit. p. 4
11 Ibid. p. 13

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development than those reflected in earlier critiques, such as naivety of assumptions about the
authenticity of motivations, behaviour in participatory processes and about the complexities of power
and power relations. Kothari suggests that development programmes based on participation draw
marginalised individuals and groups into the processes of development in the way that tie them to
structures of power so that they are not able to question them. 12 This goes along with Majid Rahnema's
view that compared participation to a 'Trojan horse' claiming that the rapid growth in use of
participatory approaches meant that it was serving important economic, institutional and legitimating
functions for a mainstream vision of development, compatible with a liberalization agenda. 13 The
debate on PD, however, did not finish with this book as more authors continued to explore the topic of
participation.

Transformational role of participation

Samuel Hickey and Giles Mohan in the publication 'Participation: From Tyranny to
Transformation?', responded to Cooke and Kothari's work, claiming that there are good reasons for
remaining optimistic concerning the potential of participatory approaches to development and
governance to effect genuine transformations at range of levels.14 This book does not reject the
criticism presented by the other scholars, but notes that, in some cases, the issues of power and politics
have been addressed, for example through the radical political projects on the bases of promoting
citizenship. According to the authors, both critics and proponents of participation need a greater level
of honesty and clarity as to what form of participation is being debated. They also call for greater
conceptual and theoretical coherence on participation and more considered claims regarding its
12 Kothari, Uma. 'Power, Knowledge and Social Control in Participatory Development' in Cooke, Bill; Kothari,
Uma. 'Participation: the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001
13 Rahnema, Majid. 'Participation'. in Sachs, Wolfgang. The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as
Power. Zed Books, 1992
14 Hickey, Samuel; Mohan, Giles. 'Participation: From Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to
Participation in Development '. Zed Books, 2004. p. 20

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potential to transform the power relations that underpin exclusion and subordination.

Another analysis that acknowledged the arguments of Cooke and Kothari, but sees the potential
for positive transformation is Glyn Williams' 'Evaluating Participatory Development: Tyranny, Power
and (Re)Politicisation'.15 It states that incorporating participation into the mainstream practices moved
it away from its initial roots in NGO practice. Moreover, the author of the publication claims that
participatory development might have contributed to the bureaucratic non-state power of 'NGO
governmentality' acting to discipline smaller NGOs across South, thus limiting the range of valid
projects, actors and activities within the NGO sector. Enlisting and demonstrating

popular

participation in development programmes has become an end in itself, a crucial measure of
scheme success and a key condition of donor approval. 16 On the other hand, he argues that the
denial of experts' agency acts against the important aspects of the development process from public
scrutiny. He also criticized the metaphor of 'Trojan Horse' used by Majid Rahnema, claiming that there
is a 'two-way traffic' that refashions and reproduces the spaces of political action. For him, using
participation to spread an intelligible debate on the nature of political rights would be a step in a good
direction as Actually existing participation, for all its short- comings, provides a range of
opportunities through which state power can be actively called to account.17

Despite the fact that these two publications contributed significantly to the discourse on
participation, I still find that not enough attention has been drawn towards the limitations of 'The New
Tyranny'. This is why, the three sections of my essay will explore the contradictions of this book,
drawing mainly on the argumentation presented by two contributors to 'The New Tyranny' – David
Mosse and John Hailey.
15 Williams, Glyn. 'Evaluating Participatory Development: Tyranny, Power and (Re)Politicisation'. Third World
Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2004
16 Williams, Glyn. Op. Cit. p. 563
17 Ibid. p. 573

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Case studies

I have decided to narrow the focus of my research mainly to the works of Mosse and Hailey as
the projects they describe share many similarities with the activities conducted by the Barka
foundation. This will allow me to combine the critique of 'The New Tyranny' with the analysis of the
case study I am particularly interested in. In this way, I might omit some points about the book edited
by Cooke and Kothari. However, my argumentation will question crucial assumptions stated in that
book.

The article 'People's Knowledge. Participation and Patronage: Operations and Representations in
Rural Development.'18 by David Mosse describes the KRIBP project, conducted in India for which the
author had been a social development consultant over several years. In his work, he criticized
participatory approaches for their contradictory role as he claimed that they actually have been
compatible with top-down planning systems and have not questioned the prevailing institutional
practices of development. One of his arguments states that the projects can clearly influence the way in
which people construct their needs. By describing the case study, he concludes that the villagers' needs
were shaped by perceptions of what the agency could deliver. Moreover, he states that the pressure to
get things done was another obstacle preventing meaningful participation from taking place. Mosse
described how participatory planning was more of a marketed 'commodity', distributed with a
corporate image of the agency behind the project, than anything else. Moreover, it enabled the project
organization to extend its client-focused networks of patronage in the region. The author criticized the
project for displaying its concern with people's participation, yet having little impact on rural
livelihoods.
18 Mosse, David 1. 'People's Knowledge, Participation and Patronage: Operations and Representations in Rural
Development' in Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma. 'Participation: the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001

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I also decided to present John Hailey's article 'Beyond the Formulaic: Process and Practice in
South Asian NGOs'19 because of the three reasons. First, it is the only article in Cooke and Kothari's
book that describes effective work of the NGOs. Second, despite the fact that it shows potential
directions in which participatory approaches could move, this article, together with its main
conclusions, seems to be almost completely ignored in most of works on participation that I came
across. Third, already mentioned, the case studies presented in the article have got a lot in common
with the work of Barka. A very interesting thing is that non of the case studies presented by Hailey
referred to the use the PRA techniques as these NGOs did not base their work on a set of formal tools
or participative techniques. Hailey claimed that informal, non-formulaic, personal interactions are a
key element of participative decision-making.The scholar also stressed the importance that values such
as respect, trust and friendship played while developing the relations between the project staff and its
recipients. The understanding of, and responsiveness to, the needs of local communities is, according
to Hailey, the cause of the organizations' success.

The theories and arguments presented in this section will be analysed throughout Sections V to
VII. Before that, however, Section VI will describe organization studied by me in order to place further
analysis in a broader context

Section IV – Barka: history and activities

The Barka foundation was created in Poland as a response to increasing social problems of the
transformation system. Barbara and Tomasz Sadowscy wanted to create environments and social
structures that would enable the 'forgotten and unwanted' members of the Polish society to develop
19 Hailey, John. 'Beyond the formulaic: Process and Practice in South Asian NGOs' in Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma.
'Participation: the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001

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personally and socially. This lead to the creation of alternative system of help, that focuses on
members the marginalised groups, enabling them to rebuild their personality, educates them in various
ways and helps them to find their way in the new socio-economic system.20

In late 1980s two psychologist set up the first house of Barka in the abandoned school building
in Władysławowo and started living with 25 people finding themselves in very difficult life situations.
These included people living prisons, reformatories, prostitutes and alcoholics This first community
became a platform for development of the movement of mutual help not only for the needing ones but
also for informal groups of citizens and NGOs from Poland and abroad. Its main goal has been to
deliver living spaces, workplaces and education for people marginalised by the neoliberal system.
Since then economically independent and self-sufficient communities have been created all over
Poland, promoting the model of an economy of inclusion.21

Activities of Barka develop along two paraller schemes. First one aims at the rehabilitation of
people rejected by the society. Second focuses on implementation of developed models of
rehabilitation and social entrepreneurship through building local partnerships and through the
education of local leaders to engage in creating local activities and markets. 22 Barka has developed
programmes and structures that would serve as platform for self development of the disadvantaged
members of the society (rural communities, homeless, disabled, addicts, illiterate and many others).
These structures involved the Social Integration Centres (for those being long term unemployed),

20 Sadowska, Barbara. 'New Beginning. Social Market Economy.' Fundacja Pomocy Wzajemnej Barka, 2010
21 'Oblicza szczęścia'
http://barka.org.pl/node/23
22 World Habitat Award, Building Partnerships to Eradicate Poverty
http://www.worldhabitatawards.org/winners-and-finalists/project-details.cfm?lang=00&theProjectID=18AD7EF215C5-F4C0-993FDB14AEC692EF

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Social Economy Centres (for those not eligible for Social Integration Centres), co-operatives, social
enterprises, eco-farms and programme of house building.23 The report from 2009 stated that the
system of accessible housing provided 750 people with housing. 24 Until then 25 successful social
enterprises had been created (35 more were being in the process of creation at that point). 8 Social
Integration Cetres have been created. Two PGRs were renovated and transformed into ecological
farms. On top of that, the organization runs the street paper. The structures of Barka are also based on
partnerships with Public Centres of Social Help, NGOs, training institutions, housing co-operatives,
district job centres, commercial companies, committees of housing estates and parishes. The founders
of Barka have also had a chance to play a key role in introducing acts that support development of civil
society and social enterpreneurship in Poland.

In 2006 Barka Poland was contacted by the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham in
association with Housing Justice UNLEASH and The Simon Community. This resulted in the
organization coming to London in order to run the programmes of working with the Eastern European
homeless25. Since then Barka's actions have then spread into other countries of the European Union
such as Germany, Netherlands or France. Barka's unconventional programmes have attracted the
attention of various charities and NGOs worldwide. Recently, several African organisations aiming at
introducing such models of community driven developments in their own countries, have approached
the Polish foundation. The INISE programme has been set up by Barka as a response to interest from
such countries as Ghana, Ethiopia, Kenya or Uganda26.

23 Sadowska, Barbara. Op. Cit.
24 World Habitat Award, Op. Cit.
25 Barka UK, About
http://www.barkauk.org/news/about/
26 INISE, Board of Trustees
http://inise.org/?page_id=188

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At the moment, the activities of the African programmes are at the beginning phase. In this
research, I will focus particularly on the actions carried out in Kenya, particularly on self – help
programme being implemented in assistance of KCA in Kanini Kaseo village, in Kenya. This projects
started as a response to the Horn of Africa Drought 2009-2011. One of the main aims of this
programmes is to achieve food security in the region abolish the dependency of villagers on food aid.
The project carried out by Barka and KCA is based on assumptions of PD as these are the members of
local SHG that are claimed to be in charge of designing and implementing the activities. 27 The nature
of this undertaking is quite different to the works carried out by Barka in Europe. This is why the next
sections of this research will refer to the activities of the organization on both continents to show how
the assumptions of the PD might vary. I will start with presenting different understandings of the
concept of participation.

Section V – What does participation mean?

A simple way to describe participation is to say that to participate means to take part, to become
involved, and there is little more to it than that.28 However, in practice there is definitely a lot more to
it than that and this is what I will show in this section. So far, the debate about PD focused mainly on
the PRA model developed by Chambers. The problem with Cooke and Kothari's book is that it focuses
mainly on criticising these models and draws the conclusion that participation – not just PRA – should
not be saved. I agree with the point stated in 'From Tyranny to Transformation' that greater conceptual
and theoretical coherence on participation is very often missing in the debate29. In this section I will not
try to develop a universal definition of participation, but will show the different forms that
27 Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba 1. 'Kanini Kaseo. Hope and Vision for Africa'. Kenya Community Association, 2012
28 Richardson, Ann. 'Participation'. Routledge, 1983. p.8
29 Hickey, Samuel; Mohan, Giles.Op. Cit.

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participation might take basing on the WB's assumptions, Mosse's and Hailey's arguments, and on the
experience of the work of Barka.

According to the WB scholars there are four forms that PD might take. First, passive
participation, is when the recipients of the projects are only being informed about the decisions that
had already taken place without having any influence on them. Second, participation by consultation,
is an extractive process when recipients provides the answers to the questions prepared by the outside
institutions. Next, participation by collaboration, does not make much impact on the aims of the
projects, however, it requires recipients' active involvement in the decision-making process about how
to achieve the goals. The last one, empowerment participation, takes place when the recipients are
capable and willing to initiate the processes and take part in the analysis which leads to joint decision
making.30 It can be already seen that participation might be implemented in many ways – each of them
resulting in different levels of engagement from the recipients. I will now move to present the critique
of these methods.

One of Mosse's main argument is that the creators of the KRIBP were designing it mainly in the
way that it would fit the ODA requirements. On the other hand the recipients of the project were not
making the same choices as they would without the influence of the KBCL. 31 And these are the main
obstacles preventing a meaningful participation from taking place. Mosse claims that the way
participation should work is that the villagers would be the ones to make decisions on what they need
and how to run the projects without and the role of the outside agency would be narrowed to the
implementation of recipients' ideas. At the same time, he also states that the presence of the outside
agencies will inevitably influence the way in which the programme functions. This is, he concludes, a
30 Mefalopulos, Paolo. Tufte, Thomas. 'Participatory Communication: A Practical Guide.' The World Bank, 2009
31 Mosse, David 2. 'The making and marketing of participatory development' in Quarles van Ufford, Philip; Kumar
Giri, Ananta. 'A Moral Critique of Development: in Search of Global Responsibilities'. Routledge, 2003

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contradiction impossible to overcome.32

Hailey, on the other hand, describes the work of the NGOs he claims to be successful and
pointing on the development of personal relations, friendship and trust between the NGO workers and
the recipients of the projects resulting in the efficient mode of decision making. On top of that, the
scholar prepared a set of the characteristics of all the successful NGOs: a fundamental belief in
participative development, an ethos of close collaboration with local communities, and a clear vision
based on a strongly held, well articulated set of values. Their work is based on the conviction that the
poor and uneducated can take control of their lives with some outside encouragement, assistance and
support. As a result, NGOs bring to local communities new technologies, new organizational
capacities, and management competencies compatible with local experiences and preferences. Their
staff demonstrate a willingness to experiment and learn, to listen and discuss, and also to initiate and
inspire.33 Hailey claims that the participation discourse should be shifted from formulaic approaches
towards the focus on personal interactions. I points to the conclusion that participation, if understood
and implemented in ways differed than ones prescribed by PRA, might actually be a concept worth
saving.

The way in which Barka's programmes work depends on the problems being dealt with. The
actions of Barka within the European countries focus mainly on the work with the long term
unemployed and the problems related to their condition, such as homelessness, alcoholism etc. In the
movie from 1994 Tomasz Sadowski describes that their aim was to create family relations with the
people as, according to him, A person who found himself on the margin of social life does not
necessarily need a hat or to be well informed, but mainly social support.34 I had a chance to observe
32 Mosse, David 2. Op. Cit.
33 Hailey, John. Op. Cit. p. 95
34 'Oblicza Szczęścia'. Op. Cit. Translated by me.

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Barka's work in Poland and in London. Indeed, development of personal involvement was a
particularly visible during my encounters with the organization. For example, during the meetings of
Barka UK it was evident that the destiny of every single homeless that the workers of Barka had
encountered was the main concern of the organization. Ewa Sadowska, the Chief Executive of Barka
UK kept inquiring about cases of the individual persons, knowing their names and stories.

Having a chance to see the way Barka works, it appeared to me that a very important factor was
the focus of the founders of the organization on increasing self-esteem of every single individual by
making them realize their potential. Barka developed various methods as a way to achieve this goal.
This includes not only the educational programmes and workshops. A very important role in the work
of Barka within European countries is played by the leaders. Leaders are the ex homeless, very often
alcoholics, who have been helped by barka. Right now they work with Barka, patrolling the streets,
looking for the homeless, trying to persuade them to take part in Barka's programmes and mentoring
them once they agree to cooperate. My informal conversations with different leaders showed me that
they were aware that their knowledge of the realities of being homeless together with their testimony
of their own recovery thanks to Barka's programmes was a very important part of building trust
between the organization and the homeless. It was evident the awareness of being useful and
appreciated, and that they could meaningfully participate in helping others, was the core of the process
of their retrieval. It can be seen that Barka shows many of the characteristics that Hailey pointed to be
shared by the NGOs he claimed to be successful. At the same time, Barka does base its work on
participatory assumptions making its programs highly efficient.

As it was described earlier in this section, according to WB the empowerment participation takes
place when the recipients of projects have influence on the decisions made by development agency.

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The case of Barka, however, shows how to go beyond this theory. It is not only that the recipients of
the organization influence the way the programmes are run. Very often they run the programmes
themselves. For example, the recipients of Barka have turned the PGRs into ecological farms that they
now administer. The important aspect of Barka's work is breaking the passive attitudes of the
beneficiaries. As it was acknowledged by the chairman of Kenya Community Association, the system
developed by Barka makes it possible to develop programs, in which people do not wait for free lunch,
but contribute to build and develop mutual interactions.35 This is one of the reasons why the KCA
decided to create partnership with Barka and work together on the projects in Kenya.

According to the statement prepared by the Kanini Kaseo SHG, this organization wrote several
proposals to different donors which had not been supported before the KCA decided to engage with the
project and work on achieving the food security in the area.36 I spoke with Baiba Dhidha Mjidho about
the process of decision making in the programme. Potentially it is INISE that is going to take the
decisions about the programmes. However, the organization allows the SGH to try the solutions that
they think are best for them. As I was told during the interview Unless you are able to understand and
appreciate what people are doing, you won't develop trust and you will not succeed with what you
want to do.37 I was quite pleased to hear these words from the chairman of the KCA, especially as I had
not told him that participation was the main theme of my research. It is the SHG that defines what the
goals are and what is needed to achieve them, KCA provides funds for and assistance in implementing
the ideas.38 At the time of the interview, trenches had been dug, the irrigation system had been
developed and the output of the crops had increased. At the same time, members of the SHG noticed
the problem of high evaporation and made a decision about building a green house. Baiba Dhidha
35 Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba 2. 'Human Enterprise Triumph – Barka Foundation'. Kenya Community Association. p. 9
36 Kanini Kaseo Kyunyu Self Help Group. 'Statement on Thursday 9th February 2012'
37 Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba. 2/03/2013
38 This can also refer to Williams' argument about NGO governmentality as it seems lik KCA together with Barka
do not restrict small local organizations, but assist them in their initiatives.

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Mjidho described Kanini Kaseo as a living laboratory where they allow the recipients of the funds
make their own decisions and even make the mistakes. Moreover, Between April and 2012, the
founders of Barka, accompanied by Baiba Dhidha Mjidho, went for a study visit to Kenya. Then the
discussions with urban and rural communities, diplomats, government officials, intellectuals, bankers
and and the marginalized people in the slums of Nairobi took place.39

This section showed that participation is not a fixed concept. Different people understand it in
different ways and various agencies implement it in various ways. The case of Barka presents the
example of projects going beyond the theory of participation that not only shifts the decision making
processes towards the recipients. It shows that the factors that come together to build participatory
programmes can extend towards acknowledging and developing potential of every single individual,
and even allowing people to run the programmes. This particularly shows the problem of the
argumentation used within 'The New Tyranny'. The book dwells mainly on the limitations of PRA, not
acknowledging the fact that participation might be incorporated into development programmes in
different ways. It is understandable to criticise a particular model, but rejecting the whole concept on
the basis of the problems related to a single manifestation of it should not be acceptable. The case of
Kanini Kaseo project undermines Mosse's idea of participation being unimplementable. There are,
however, some problems related to the Kanini Kaseo project. This section pointed only to the fact that
participation can take place even at the form that Mosse claimed was impossible to implement. The
next section, on the other hand, will examine the idea of the projects' success and how the situation
might change in the long run.

39 Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba 1. Op. Cit.

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Section VI – What does define success?

Another problem pointed by Mosse is how different agencies define success. I find this argument
extremely relevant as the judgement about PD is very often based on what one perceives as the most
desirable outcome of a project. The scholar pointed to the fact that the participation provided a strong
basis for defining the programme success. On the other hand, from the point of view of the agency and
its PR For policy to succeed it is necessary it seems that it is not implemented, but that enough people
firmly believe that it is.40 These arguments, in my opinion, are not very relevant when to comes to
discussing participation as they could definitely be used in relation to many different development
approaches, not just the participatory ones.41

Hailey states that understanding of, and responsiveness to, the needs of the local communities
are the factors that led to the success of the described NGOs. The limitation of his analysis is that he
did not describe what defines a successful development project. This is a serious limitation of his
argument as he tells the readers what are the right ways to run a project, without stating what the
outcomes of the projects are.

In his conclusion in 'The making and marketing of participatory development', Mosse states that
meaningful engagements between staff and villagers still produced important local benefits even under
conditions of severe drought.42 This shows that using PRA actually led to the interaction between the
staff and villagers and that it did bring benefits to the people. One of Chambers' claim, however, was
that that using PRA models would lead to challenging top-down development processes. Cooke and
Kothari remained within the same discourse by defining the success of the projects by the criterion
40 Mosse, David 2. Op. Cit. p. 70
41 This matter will be explored more in the next section.

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developed by Chambers. For them local benefits produced by the implementation of the PRA models
were not enough to describe the project as successful as long as it did not challenge the existing power
relations. Another theoretical goal of KRIBP, imposed by the donor agenda, was to make the villagers
self reliant. This too could be used as measure of the programme's success. The villagers, however, did
not become independent from the organization as the agency behind the project – KBCL - was a
leading national commercial organization involved in the production and marketing of agro inputs and
it was its interest that the recipients of KRIBP remained dependent on the products produced by the
company.43 Mosse, however, wrote as well that disincentives to innovate or to challenge prevailing
preconceptions were shared by both – staff and villagers 44. This shows another contradiction of his
argument. If participation is supposed to be about decision making – this shows that it was also a
decision of the local people to maintain the existing power relations for their own benefit. Mosse
pointed to the fact that the local knowledge is not a fixed factor and that it can be manipulated by the
outside agencies for their profits. Kothari, in her chapter on power, based on Foucauldian approach to
the understanding of power states that By not recognizing that knowledge is produced out of power
relations in society and through practitioners' acceptance of 'local knowledge' as some kind of
objective truth, participatory methodologies are in danger of reifying these inequalities and of
affirming the agenda of elites and other more powerful actors. 45 My question, however, is whether the
fact that the recipients of development programmes may choose not to challenge the existing power
relations is enough to entirely condemn the concept of PD. As Foucault also stated the point is not that
everything is bad, but that everything is dangerous, which is not exactly the same as bad. 46 The
challenge is to find the balance between the limitations and benefits of a discussed project.

43
44
45
46

Mosse, David 1. Op. Cit.
Mosse , David 2. Op. Cit.
Kothari, Uma. Op. Cit. p. 145
Kelly, Michael. 'Critique and Power: Recasting the Foucault/Habermas Debate'. MIT Press, 1994, p. 22

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It is not straight forward to analyse the case of Barka in relation to the concept of power as the
relations between the founders, workers and recipients of the programmes are quite complex. The
founders of the organization do have a potential power and control over their beneficiaries, particularly
the ones who become members of the organization and run various programmes. The fact that this
power is not abused, however, makes the relations even more meaningful. When it comes to the idea of
self sufficiency, some of the recipients of Barka's programmes, mainly the educational ones, manage to
get into the employment sector and become independent. Others stay with Barka on the long term
basis. One could state that they never became autonomous as they remained permanently within the
structures of the organization. However, if this is status at which everyone benefits, why should that be
considered as something wrong? Basing on my conversations with the workers of Barka I concluded
that for them the success lies in helping the individuals to get out of homelessness, get over their
addictions and live meaningful lives. In order to achieve these goals, the founders of Barka did
question the prevailing development schemes and created a system of help in which participation has
played and still plays an important role.

When it comes to the case study of Kanini Kaseo, according to the presentation prepared by
KCA, so far the tools supplied to the SHG improved the capacity of farming, rations of food boosted
productivity, water retention increased crop yields and, all in all, the output of farming doubled.47 Still,
the state of self sufficiency, which is one of the goal listed in the Kanini Kaseo project, has not yet
been achieved.48 One of the agencies involved in the project is Twiga Chemicals - the company
engaging in the supply and distribution of explosives, agrochemicals, industrial chemicals and
pharmaceuticals49. It is highly probable that the goals of the company are parallel to the ones of KBCL.
So far the company has donated three bucket drip irrigation kits and declared the willingness to
47 Kenya Community Association, 'Kanini Kaseo'
48 Barka Foundation, 'Projekt MSZ Fundacja Barka Kenia 1'
49 Twiga Chemicals – About
http://www.twigachemicals.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=23

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provide trainings on pesticides and crop storage. 50 In the long term, the dependency on the company's
products might be created just as it was described in Mosse's article. Only the time will show whether
it happens or not. Even if it does, one needs to take into consideration the origins of the project. So far,
strongly affected by drought, the people of Kanini Kaseo were dependent on food aid delivered by the
World Vision organization51. It has been the decision and desire of the inhabitants of Kanini Kaseo to
improve their agricultural capacity so that they would no longer be dependent on food aid. They
developed a programme and the KCA was the first organization to respond to their initiative. As it is
shown above, the villagers of Kanini Kaseo have already benefited from the programme. Again, one
needs to balance between the benefits gained and potential limitations of the introduced project.

This section showed another contradiction of the rhetoric of 'The New Tyranny'. The argument
presented in the book is that the development projects influence the recipients' decision about what
they need most. However, what is not acknowledged is that by stating that the success of a programme
depends on whether it alters existing power relation, another point of view (convergent with the
assumptions developed by the creators of the PRA!) might be imposed on the recipients of
development projects. My question is whether it would not be more appropriate to define success of
any development programme on the basis of to what extent it actually benefits the people? This could
change the whole discourse in favour of saving PD, as even the PRA models did benefit the recipients
of the KRIBP. Another problem presented in this (and the previous) section is how the motives of the
agencies assisting the projects affect its outcomes. It will be the aim of the next section to explore the
extent to which participation might facilitate the dubious work of certain institutions.

50 Kenya Community Association, 'Kanini Kaseo'

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Section VII – Why participation?

The issues related to the influence that the outside agencies, such as donor agendas or
commercial companies, might have on development programmes were briefly mentioned as a part of
arguments presented in the previous sections. This section will analyse the reasons for which
participatory approaches were chosen by different agencies. The topic will be explored even more in
terms of the causal relations between these agencies and participatory approaches in order to show
further limitations of the argument used in 'The New Tyranny' that so far have been omitted.

A very important, argument presented by Mosse is one about the influence of donors – in this
case ODA – on shaping the development projects. As funding of the project presented by the scholar
was dependent on how much it fitted the donor's requirements, its design followed these requisites too.
At the time when the project started, participation was the policy recommended by the WB, thus
focusing on participatory approaches in the project design was one of the main conditions to get the
funds. On the other hand, as the donors were putting pressure on the timely implementation of
development programmes, at some point project staff started taking on more of activities. This made
villagers retreat from temporary planning and decision-making to the more familiar role of passive
beneficiary or low status project employees52. However, once DIFiD's (formerly ODA) India program
realigned towards the funding of state-wide government programmes, sectoral reforms and donorgovernment partnerships, KRIBP unable to articulate this policy, lost its support and had to come to an
end.53 This points to the fact that one of the main reasons participatory approaches were used in the
project was that otherwise the chances of gaining the funds would be close to zero. At the same time,
donor's attitude of putting time pressure made it difficult for the project to allow villagers to participate
53 Mosse, David. 2. Op. Cit.

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in decision making process.

One more problem raised by Mosse is that of the motives of particular agencies taking part in
development projects. According to him, the involvement of KBCL changed the project in order to
facilitate the expansionary practices of the company. He described the process of breading, testing and
popularising seeds by scientists and farmers jointly, which then out-performed both local and officially
recommended varieties in poor soil and low input conditions. For Mosse, however, this programme
had little to do with participation as he described it as a sophisticated form of market research54.

One interpretation of why participation was chosen could go along with Rahnema's view that the
promotion of participatory approaches served economic, institutional and legitimating functions for a
mainstream vision of development, compatible with a liberalization agenda. 55 However, one needs to
bear in mind that participation itself was not the cause of the way in which the international system of
development worked. Would it not be more logical to focus the critique on the way in which the
international development agencies work instead of on the concept they promote? If one criticizes the
concept promoted by donors, it can be replaced by another one, but it will not change the way
development functions. This shows another limitation of the argument presented by Kothari. One
could argue that her argumentation focuses too much on the idea of participation, forgetting that it is
just a part of wider system that should be questioned. This would mean that her work does not
challenge the existing power relations in a meaningful way.

Hailey, in his article did not mention the source of funding of the NGOs he described. This is
another factor preventing the full analysis of the topic. However, he clearly stressed that non of the
55 Rahnema, Majid. Op. Cit.

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presented case studies referred to PRA techniques, which means that they did not have to implement
them in order to get funds. Similarly, Barka receives funds for its work mainly from the local councils,
local trusts and European Union56. As these institutions work in different ways than DIFiD, not much
pressure is placed on Barka to implement participatory techniques in European countries.
During one of our meetings, Ewa Sadowska told me that other organizations working with homeless in
London were showing the signs of anxiety when it comes to the way Barka UK operates, and the
significant role played by 'not trained' leaders of Barka who turned out to be more efficient than 'well
qualified' staff these organizations. This, she said, could be a fear of the workers of other organizations
of loosing their jobs if this model became generally acknowledged.57

When it comes the activities in Kenya, so far they have been funded with £ 3,200 collected by
the KCA during the Africa History Month for the response to the Horn of Africa Drought 2009-2011.58
The members of KCA could choose from different options to spend the money, one of them being
donating them to the World Vision or the KRCS. However, they decided to spend the money on the
project initiated by the Kanini Kaseo SHG as it shows more potential to create long term benefits to its
recipients.59 The fact that the project in Kanini Kaseo was started with the funds that had already been
collected shows the willingness of the organization to encourage participation for reasons different
than just getting the funds. However, the funds raised by the KCA are not sufficient to keep the project
going in the long term or to implement more complex programmes. This is why the organization
applied for the funds to GPAF, appointed by DIFiD. Despite the fact that GPAF acknowledged the
project for being participatory, the funds were not given to Barka UK due to little reference of the
project to MDGs and the claim that the project did not seem achievable within 12 months period. 60
56 Sadowski, Tomasz. 'Wielkopolskie Centrum Ekonomii Solidarności'. Fundacja Pomocy Wzajemnej Barka, 2012
57 Sadowska, Ewa. 12/09/2012
59 Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba. 2/03/2013
60 DFID as Fund Menager for the Global Poverty Action Fund, 'Detailed Feedback on the Concept Note', 19
February 2013

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This shows that the main focus of DIFiD has changed again. Participation does not play the crucial
role anymore, so the argument of using it in order to get the funds in not as relevant as at the time
when 'The New Tyranny' was written. If one wanted to follow the rhetoric of Cooke and Kothari, the
arguments about legitimising the power relations and using the slogans as a way of marketing could
shift from the concept of participation towards MDGs. During my interview with Tomasz Sadowski, I
was asking him about the practices of gaining people's trust. Among many explanations, he said that
often it takes years to build trust.61 The donor agenda, however, expects the goals of the project to be
achieved within one year period. This is another point, questioning more the validity of DIFiD's
methods than of participation itself.

So far the Kanini Kaseo project has managed to give the power of decision making to SHG. The
reasons for it include not only the belief of Barka and KCA in the efficiency of PD but also the fact
that the funding for it came from the source controlled by KCA. It is difficult to predict in which
direction this programme will evolve at the point when other institutions such as DIFiD or Commercial
Companies get involved. However it only reinforces the point that the critique presented by 'The New
Tyranny' should have been addressed more towards the development institutions than towards PD
itself. In his articles, Mosse indicates two main reasons for participatory approaches to be chosen in
project. First one was to meet the donor's requirements in order to get the funds. Second, for the
marketing purposes serving KBCL. My point, however, is that any concept, no matter how noble,
could be turned into a tool for achieving dubious means. Moreover, organizations discussed by Hailey
together with Barka did implement meaningful ways of engaging with their recipients even though it
was not a requirement imposed by any outside institution. Basing on the analysis of the case studies, it
seems that if imposed, participation (and probably any other approach) is more likely to serve
superficial role. On top of that, the anxiety shown by other organization not willing to employ 'not
61 Sadowski, Tomasz. 15/03/2013

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qualified' workers shows that many NGOs themselves fear the meaningful participation as it might
question the relevance of their work. This shows that saving participation and enforcing modes of
implementation developed by Barka might significantly change development processes.

Section VIII – Conclusions

Should PD be saved? The answer to this question depends highly on how we understand the
word participation and what we consider to be a successful project. The arguments presented in this
research, however, show significant limitations of the discourse of 'The New Tyranny'. Firstly, authors
and contributors to the book did not acknowledged the fact that participation might take different
forms. By focusing solely on PRA, they rejected the whole concept of participation. By doing this,
they remained within the discourse reinforced by Chambers. This is particularly evident when it comes
to analysing power relations. Chambers', partially basing on Freire's work, assumed that participatory
approaches would lead to the shift in existing power structures and self reliance of the project
recipients. Again, by simply referencing to the assumptions of the creator of PRA, 'The New Tyranny'
did not recognise other roles that participation might play and other benefits that it might bring.
Another limitation of the Cooke and Kothari's work is that they blamed participation for legitimising
the 'tyrannical' practices of development and commercial agencies without taking into consideration
that other concepts (such as MDGs) can serve the same purpose. The sole critique of participation can
lead to the shift of the trading idea, but not to change in the behaviour of the aforementioned agencies.
Thus, 'The New Tyranny', despite all the appearances, has not meaningfully contributed to the
discourse in a way that could lead to a shift in existing power relations. However, this does not mean
that all of the points stated in the book were not relevant. Cooke and Kothari's description demonstrate
significant problems related to the implementation of PD. It definitely shows that the use of

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participatory approaches is not a panacea. However, conclusions drawn in 'The New Tyranny' are
definitely too extreme in relation to what is presented through the case studies. It has been shown that
PRAs are not what Chambers claimed them to be. They can be easily manipulated in order to serve
different interests, they do not produce meaningful shifts in power relations and not necessarily they
lead to the self reliance of the 'participants'. Nevertheless, Mosse's article showed that they might bring
significant benefits to the recipients.

The case studies presented by Hailey and the way that Barka works showed possible directions
in which participatory approaches should head. Developing personal relations and having individual
approach towards each of the recipients can definitely be a part of a successful development project. I
agree with Hailey that formulaic approaches are not as meaningful in building understanding than
creating friendship and trust, and the case of Barka is a good example of that. These factors are rarely
studied as it is probably impossible, to measure and control levels of trust or friendship. This work,
however, shows that more attention should be focused on the role of these values in development (and
not only development) programmes. The case of Barka has not only shown that participation can be a
very important part of a project. This organization has moved beyond the theory of participation at the
time that this idea has not even fully entered mainstreams of development theories. The fact that the
recipients of Barka bear very responsible roles, such as running the farms or mentoring the new
recipients, indicates how meaningful forms PD might take and other organizations should probably
take inspirations from these kind of practices. This could lead to significant changes in power relations.
The Kanini Kaseo project has already brought significant changes in the lives of the villagers through
the means of implementing PD. There is a great potential in this project to be revealed on condition
that Barka and KCA manage to achieve balance between the influence of donors, other institutions and
and the wishes of the villagers. On top of that, complexity of Barka's programmes presented in Section

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IV shows that participation is not the only area in which the innovative thinking should be
implemented in order for the organizations' work to succeed. I think other ideas developed by this
organization are as worth analysing as their approach towards PD. But this could be a aubject of
another research.

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Bibliography

Textbooks

Carpentier, Nico. 'Media and Participation: A Side of Ideological-democratic Struggle'. Intellect
Books, 2011
Dagron, Alfonso Gumucio; Tufte, Thomas. 'Communication for Social Change Anthology: Historical
and Contemporary Readings.' CFSC Consortium, INC, 2006
Freire, Paulo. 'Pedagogy of the Opressed: 30th Anniversary Edition', Continuum International Publish
Group, 2000
Hickey, Samuel; Mohan, Giles. 'Participation: From Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New
Approaches to Participation in Development '. Zed Books, 2004
Kelly, Michael. 'Critique and Power: Recasting the Foucault/Habermas Debate'. MIT Press, 1994
Mefalopulos, Paolo. Tufte, Thomas. 'Participatory Communication: A Practical Guide.' The World
Bank, 2009
Richardson, Ann. 'Participation'. Routledge, 1983
Sadowska, Barbara. 'New Beginning. Social Market Economy.' Fundacja Pomocy Wzajemnej Barka,
2010
Sadowski, Tomasz. 'Rozwój. O tym jak integracja środowisk lokalnych oraz uspołecznienie
gospodarki budują nową jakość.' Fundacja Pomocy Wzajemnej Barka, 2012
Sadowski, Tomasz. 'Wielkopolskie Centrum Ekonomii Solidarności'. Fundacja Pomocy Wzajemnej
Barka, 2012

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Articles in Textbooks
Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma, 'The Case for Participation as Tyranny' in Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma.
'Participation: the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001
Hailey, John. 'Beyond the formulaic: Process and Practice in South Asian NGOs' in Cooke, Bill;
Kothari, Uma. 'Participation: the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001
Kothari, Uma. 'Power, Knowledge and Social Control in Participatory Development' in Cooke, Bill;
Kothari, Uma. 'Participation: the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001
Mosse, David 1. 'People's Knowledge, Participation and Patronage: Operations and Representations in
Rural Development' in Cooke, Bill; Kothari, Uma. 'Participation: the New Tyranny?'. Zed Books, 2001
Mosse, David 2. 'The making and marketing of participatory development' in Quarles van Ufford,
Philip; Kumar Giri, Ananta. 'A Moral Critique of Development: in Search of Global Responsibilities'.
Routledge, 2003
Rahnema, Majid. 'Participation'. in Sachs, Wolfgang. The Development Dictionary: A Guide to
Knowledge as Power. Zed Books, 1992

Articles in Journals
Chambers, Robert. 'The Origins and Practice of Participatory Rural Apprisal.' World Development,
Vol. 22, No 7, 1994
Parker, Melissa. ‘Rethinking Female Circumcision’. Africa, 65(4), 1995
Williams, Glyn. 'Evaluating Participatory Development: Tyranny, Power and (Re)Politicisation'.
Third World Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2004
Websites
Barka UK, About
http://www.barkauk.org/news/about/
INISE, Board of Trustees
http://inise.org/?page_id=188
Twiga Chemicals – About
http://www.twigachemicals.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=23
World Habitat Award, Building Partnerships to Eradicate Poverty
http://www.worldhabitatawards.org/winners-and-finalists/project-details.cfm?
lang=00&theProjectID=18AD7EF2-15C5-F4C0-993FDB14AEC692EF
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Reports
Barka Foundation, 'Projekt MSZ Fundacja Barka Kenia 1'
Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba 1. 'Kanini Kaseo. Hope and Vision for Africa'.
Kenya Community Association, 2012
Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba 2. 'Human Enterprise Triumph – Barka Foundation'.
Kenya Community Association
DFID as Fund Menager for the Global Poverty Action Fund, 'Detailed Feedback on the Concept Note',
19 February 2013
Kanini Kaseo Kyunyu Self Help Group. 'Statement on Thursday 9th February 2012'

PowerPoint Presentation
Kenya Community Association, 'Kanini Kaseo'
Movie
'Oblicza Szczęścia'
http://barka.org.pl/node/23
Personally Conducted Infotmal Interviews
Dhidha Mjidho, Baiba. 2-3/03/2013
Informant 1. 12/09/2012
Sadowska, Ewa. 12/09/2012
Sadowski, Tomasz. 15/03/2013

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Participatory development – should it be saved

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