1. Curriculum Theory
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Questions:
1. You have been assigned to a low-performing middle school campus.
Your superintendent has requested that you make changes in the
school curriculum to increase student achievement. Describe your
plan of action to increase student achievement levels at this middle
school.
2. Describe and discuss how the informal and hidden curriculum impact
and change the formal curriculum? Provide specific examples.
Include parental expectations and prohibitions as part of the informal
curriculum.
3. What constructs about curriculum are present in the minds of
educators in a school with which you are familiar?
Historically, education has played a major role in shaping the lives of
all individuals. Curriculum theory has continually evolved and, there has
always been a battle to improve and expand the curriculum. Several
questions that plague educators today are “Which curriculum should we
follow?” and “What knowledge is of most worth?”. There are a multitude of

2. curriculum theories that help educators understand the concept of student
learning and achievement. This chapter is an attempt to expose educators to
the diverse curriculum theories that influence today’s educational system.
What is curriculum?
From a historical perspective, curriculum is any document or plan that
exists in a school or school system that defines the work of teachers. This
plan guides educators in identifying the content of the material to be taught.
Many work plans may consist of textbooks, resource materials, or scope and
sequence charts. “The purpose of a curriculum is not to abandon
organizational boundaries but to enable the organization to function within
those boundaries more effectively and, over time more efficiently” (English
and Larson, 1996). “A curriculum can accomplish these goals by: (1)
clarifying organizational boundaries; (2) defining the nature of the work to
be done; (3) relating the major tasks to be accomplished to one another
within the total work process or work flow (coordination); (4) defining
standards by which work is to be measured or assessed; (5) defining
evaluation procedures by which work results can be compared to work
performed; (6) making changes in the work performed through feedback;
and (7) repeating the above steps in order to achieve a higher level of work
performance on a consistent basis” (English and Larson, p.24).

3. There are at least three different types of curriculum in schools:
formal curriculum, informal curriculum, and hidden curriculum
The formal curriculum usually appears in state regulations, curriculum
guides, or officially sanctioned scope and sequence charts. The formal
curriculum is what will be found in teacher’s lesson plans. The informal
curriculum represents the unofficial aspects of designing or delivering the
curriculum. This type of curriculum involves the subtle but important
personality traits that a teacher interacts with the child – positively or
negatively. Informal curriculum contains those things that we teach that are
unplanned and spontaneous. The hidden curriculum is not recognized at
schools. It deals with expectations and assumptions. These are teachings,
which are presented to students but are not consciously received by them.
Hidden curriculum can be destructive, negative and subversive, or it can be
constructive, desirable and positive. Tanner describes this as the collateral
curriculum. Tanner stresses that collateral learning is in the way of
formation of enduring attitudes, of likes and dislikes, may be and often more
important that the spelling lesson in geography or history that is learned
(Tanner,1995).

4. Curriculum Alignment Theory
Curriculum alignment is an important strategy necessary to enhance
academic achievement levels of all students. Because of high stakes testing,
students need to be prepared to pass state exams. Fenwick English, a
leading proponent of curriculum alignment, maintains that there is an
interrelationship between the tested curriculum, taught curriculum and
written curriculum. When all three are working together, the relationship is
called “tight”. In order to produce optimum educational results, steps must
be taken to align the written curriculum (found in textbooks, curriculum
guides and supports resources), the taught curriculum (teachers’ lesson
plans) and the tested curriculum (TAAS, ITBS, SAT, etc.) Fenwick English
describes curriculum as a document of some sort, and its purpose is to focus
and connect the work of classroom teachers in schools (1992). School
districts tend to purchase textbooks that are usually not aligned to the
curriculum or state tests. This presents a problem. Focus and connectivity
are lost. Curriculum articulation (Vertical Teaming) refers to the focus and
vertical connectivity in a school or school system. Several design and
delivery issues arise relating to curriculum articulation. In design, teachers
must define in the work plan the required levels of focus/connectivity

5. desired to optimize student performance vertically. In delivery, program
monitoring is essential to ensure design integrity vertically (English, 1992).
Lastly, if what is tested is not being taught nor addressed in materials used
by students, test scores and related educational outcomes will not reach the
expectations of the students, teachers, administrators, parents, and the
public. In an era of accountability, curriculum alignment offers students an
opportunity to become successful.
In Allan Glatthorn’s book The Principal as Curriculum Leader, he
presents a six- step curriculum process that aids in alignment: (1) Plan the
project. A committee should be appointed to oversee the project. The
committee members must be trained in the alignment process. (2) Focus the
curriculum. The curriculum should focus on the district’s objectives. (3)
Analyze the tests. Grade level teams should analyze test data. This strategy
would allow teachers to indicate which of the mastery objectives are more
likely to be tested. (4) Analyze the text. Teachers should analyze where the
mastery objectives are explained in the text. (5) Evaluate the results. The
committee should review and discuss all the results, noting areas needed to
be improved. (6) Use the results. Complete alignment charts. Teachers
should use the mastery objectives to develop yearly and unit plans that
ensure adequate treatment of all objectives. Objectives tested should have

6. priority and objectives not tested should have second priority (Glatthorn,
1997).
Quality Control in Curriculum
Quality control refers to a continuous process or organizational self-
direction and evolution that increase organizational effectiveness. Three key
ingredients that must be present are 1) a work standard, 2) work assessment,
and 3) activity. As all these elements become congruent, work performance
in an organization in improved.
Multiple Intelligence Theory
Howard Gardner has created the theory of Multiple Intelligences. He
maintains that most school systems often focus on a narrow range of
intelligence that involves primarily verbal/linguistic and
logical/mathematical skills. While knowledge and skills in these areas are
essential for surviving and thriving in the world, he suggests that there are at
least six other kinds of intelligence that are important to fuller human
development and that almost everyone has available to develop. They
include, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, naturalist
and intra-personal intelligence. Gardner believes that the eight intelligences
he has identified are independent, in that they develop at different times and
to different degrees in different individuals. They are, however, closely

7. related, and many teachers and parents are finding that when an individual
becomes more proficient in one area, the whole constellation of intelligence
may be enhanced.
The following philosophic theories examine curriculum from a broad
view that includes all of the learner’s experiences to the more restricted view
that sees it as academic subject matter. (1) Idealist Curriculum Theory –
This theory was prevalent during the days of Plato. Idealists viewed
curriculum as a body of intellectual subject matter and learned disciplines
that are ideational and conceptual. Mathematics, history and literature for
instance were ranked very high. The overriding goal of Idealist education
was to encourage students to be seekers of truth. (2) Realist Curriculum
Theory – Aristotle founded Realism. Realist curriculum maintains that the
most effective and efficient way to find out about reality is to study it
through systematically organized subject matter disciplines. Realist
curriculum involves instruction in the areas of reading, writing, and
computation. Gaining knowledge through research methods are stressed.
(3) Naturalist Curriculum Theory – The Naturalists view of curriculum
differed from the earlier theorists. Learning should actively involve children
in dealing with the environment, using their senses, and solving problems.

8. Naturalists maintained that genuine education is based on the readiness and
needs of the human being.
(4) Pragmatic (Experiential) Curriculum Theory- This curriculum theory
approaches learning through experiencing . The child’s interests, needs and
experiences are taken into consideration. (5) Existentialist Curriculum
Theory – The curriculum includes the skills and subjects that explain
physical and social reality. “The crucial learning phase is not in the
structure of knowledge, nor in curricular organization but rather in the
student’s construction of its meaning (Gutek, 120)”. (6) Conservatism
Curriculum Theory – The curriculum should transmit the general culture to
all and provide appropriate education to the various strata in society. This
curriculum included the basic skills found in most school programs –
reading, writing, and math.
Personal Practical Knowledge
In his work, Personal Knowledge, Michael Polanyi demonstrates that
the scientist’s personal participation in the production of knowledge is an
indispensable part of the science itself. “Even the exact sciences, “knowing
is an art, of which the skill of the knower, guided by his personal
commitment and his passionate sense of increasing contact with reality, is a
logically necessary part”. Polanyi describes, “knowing” in the art of riding a

9. bike. In this description he states that the principle by which the cyclist
keeps his balance is known, but the knowledge is in the “doing”.
Key Concepts
Accountability – This term refers to holding schools and teachers
responsible for what students learn.
Content- A word used to identify the curriculum and separate it from school
management.
Criterion-Referenced Test – Measures of performance compared to
predetermined standards or objectives.
Core/Fused Curriculum – Integration of the two or more subjects; for
example, English and social studies. Problem and theme orientations often
serve as the integrating design.
Curriculum –Curriculum is any document or plan that exists in a school or
school system that defines the work of teachers.
Curriculum Alignment – A connectivity between what is tested, taught and
written.
Curriculum Compacting – Content development and delivery models that
abbreviated the amount of time to cover a topic without compromising the
depth and breadth of material taught.

10. Curriculum Development – A process whereby choices in designing a
learning experience for students are made and activated through a set of
coordinated activities.
Curriculum Guide – A written statement of objectives, content, and
activities to be used with a particular subject at specified grade levels;
usually produced by state departments or local educational agencies.
Curriculum Management Planning – A systematic method of planning for
change.
Formative Evaluation - Student achievement is monitored throughout the
school year. This will be done through student /teacher conferences,
departmental meetings, curriculum director monitoring and conferences.
Feedback and suggestions for improvement will be considered.
Knowing in Action – This concept refers to the sorts of know-how we
reveal in our intelligent action. By observing and reflecting in our actions,
we make knowing in action implicit. We reveal it in a spontaneous manner;
and we are unable to put it in words (Schon, p. 25, 1987).
Performance Objective – Targeted outcome measures for evaluating the
learning of particular process based skills and knowledge.
Sequence – The organization of an area of study. Frequently, the
organization is chronological, moving from simple to complex.

11. Staff Development – Body of activities designed to improve the
proficiencies of the educator practitioner.
Subject-Content – The type of curriculum that stresses the mastery of
subject matter, with all other outcomes considered subsidiary.
Summative Evaluation - Teachers and students will reflect on the
curriculum process. Met and unmet goals and objectives will be discussed
at length. Improvements and refinements will be based on the summative
evaluation
Tacit Knowledge – Tacit knowledge is “ knowing in action”. To become
skillful in the use of this tool is to learn to appreciate, directly and without
immediate reasoning, the qualities of the material that we apprehend through
the tacit sensation of the tool in our hand (Schon, p. 25, 1987).

12. Curriculum Websites – The following sites provide information on
curriculum and the curriculum alignment process.
http://www.pde.psu.edu/connections/currdevl/intro.htm
http://es.houstonisd.org/TijerinaES/Math%20Curriculum
%20Alignment%20Powerpoint/sld001.htm
http://www.dese.state.mo.us/divimprove/curriculum/powerpoint/
http://www.ncsd.k12.pa.us/pssa/STAFFDEV/sdpCA.htm
http://www.yamhillesd.k12.or.us/ESDPage/coordinator/support.html
http://www.breathitt.k12.ky.us/Curriculum/clignment.htm
http://www.risd41.org/ri/curriculum/documents/curriculum_documents
.htm
http://osi.fsu.edu/waveseries/htmlversions/wave9.htm
http://www.teaching.rmit.edu.au/progimprov/matrix.html
http://www.asbj.com/achievement/aa/aa4.html
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/month7/implement_sub
1.html
http://www.tea.state.tx.us