Masters Project

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
It is no longer news that the lifeblood of any organisation are her employees. These
employees are important to the existence and functioning of the organisation in the sense that
they make possible the realisation of the goals and objectives of the organisation. The various
attitudes exhibited by these employees in the course of their work life has been the subject of
research in the fields of management, organisational development, and industrial-organisational
psychology. Some of these attitudes include job satisfaction, organisational commitment,
engagement, and job involvement. These attitudes are being studied because it is believed that an
understanding of what drives employees to exhibit any of these attitudes is important so as to
enable managers, and employers know what to do facilitate the exhibition of the right attitude
that would enhance the performance of the organisation in the achievement of her goals.
Research on job involvement began in the 1940s with the work of Allport (1943); Dubin
(1956; 1968); Lodahl and Kejner (1965); Lawler and Hall (1970); Vroom (1959, 1962); and
Kanungo (1982). According to Locke (as cited in Schuler 1977), “a person involved in his job is
one who takes it seriously, for whom important values are at stake in the job, whose moods and
feelings are significantly affected by his job experiences and who is mentally preoccupied with
his job”. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) defined job involvement as “the degree of importance of
ones work in ones total self-image”. Paullay, Alliger and Stone-Romero (1994) defined job
involvement as “the degree to which one is cognitively preoccupied with, engaged in, and
concerned with one’s present job”. A more recent definition as given by Newstrom and Davis

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(2002) sees job involvement as “the degree to which employees immerse themselves in their
jobs, invest time and energy in them, and view work as a central part of their overall lives” (cited
in Ahamed and Islam, 2014).
One thing that can be noticed in these definitions is that the concept of job involvement is a
subjective one, that is, it varies from employee to employee and it ranges from high to low levels
of involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) were of the opinion that job involvement is a function
of the individual, specifically his early socialization. This view was shared by Locke (1976).
Lawler and Hall (1970) on their part suggested that job involvement may be a combination of
individual/socialization and environmental/organizational characteristics (cited in Schuler,
1977). Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) established through research that three possible classes of
working variables can be identified in explaining an individual’s level of job involvement. (1)
The dispositional approach held by the individual; (2) the situation-determined approach or job
characteristics; and (3) the interaction between these two approaches. The dispositional approach
has to do with individual personalities and individual differences. Some of the measures that fall
under dispositional approach are locus of control, age, gender, tenure, growth need strength, and
belief in the protestant work ethic. Situation-determined approach on the other hand has to do
with the job characteristics or organisational characteristics such as leadership style, opportunity
to make decisions, recognition, freedom to set one’s work pace, job features and other
conditional influences. Brown (1996) concludes that the job-involved person is one who (a)
finds their job motivating and challenging; (b) is committed to their work in general, to the
specific job, and to the organisation, making them less inclined to leave their position; and (c)
engages more closely in professional relationships with, for example, supervisors, and therefore
stands a better chance of feedback.

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The level of employee’s job involvement has been positively related to employee’s
performance (Lodahl and Kejner, 1965). As such, it is of central importance for organisations to
seek ways to increase the levels of involvement shown by employees. From the discussion
above, it has been established that determinants of job involvement range from
personal/individual characteristics to organisational/situational characteristics. Since it is not
likely that employers will be able to influence the personal/individual characteristics as they are
most times enduring and stable aspects of the employees, what remains to be done to increase
job involvement therefore is to influence the organisational/situational characteristics. To do this
organisations can change their leadership style, allow for more participation in decision making,
give room for employees to set pace of work and so on.
Flexible work arrangements arose in a bid to provide alternative work schedules apart from
the standard nine-to-five or eight-to-four work schedules that had existed previously. These
alternative work arrangements gave employees more flexibility in determining where and when
work is to be done. Flexible work arrangements can be defined as any work arrangement that
allows flexibility in the hours of work, and place of work to employees. Some writers claim it is
a part of the larger context of work-life balance (United Nations, 2012). The adoption of flexible
work arrangements vary from country to country with the first adopters including Germany, US,
and UK. Nigeria is not left behind in the number of countries that have adopted flexible work
arrangements, however the rate of adoption has still not cut across every part of the sector. In
fact, a large number of companies that have adopted flexible work arrangements are private
multinational organisations with a few private indigenous organisations following suit. Types of
flexible work arrangements include telecommuting, compressed work week, flexi-time, part-time

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work, and job sharing. For the purpose of this research however, flexible work arrangements will
be limited to telecommuting.
Telecommuting is said to be a flexibility in where work is done. It allows for employees to
work at a location different from the organisation’s main site. As such, workers can work from
home, from a satellite office, or on-the-go (that is mobile office). Some benefits of
telecommuting to employers include reduction in the cost of operation, ease in recruiting and
retention of employees, a more satisfied workforce, employers’ goods and services are made
available for a longer time to customers, and a more productive and engaged workforce. On the
part of the employees, telecommuting offer more ease in balancing work and family
responsibilities, and influences their commitment to the organisation.
As a way of influencing organisation’s characteristics to drive job involvement therefore,
companies can offer flexible work arrangements, in particular telecommuting. The influence of
telecommuting on job involvement will therefore be examined in this study.
Demographic variables such as age, gender, locus of control, and tenure are examples of
individual characteristics that can affect job involvement levels of employees. Some studies have
found job involvement to be positively related to job tenure and organizational tenure (Morrow
and McElroy, 1987; Rabinowitz and Hall, 1977), while others indicate non-significant
relationships (Blau, 1985a; 1985b; Saal, 1978; 1981). For this study therefore it would be
investigated whether the tenure of employees’ will affect their job involvement level.
Researchers have also tried to answer the question whether or not job involvement is gender
specific. Conflicting results have however been reported. While some researchers report that
gender differences occur in job involvement levels (Akinbode and Fagbohungbe, 2011; Ekore
and Onomerike, 2004), others do not find a difference in the involvement levels between the

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genders (Oguegbe, Joe-Akunne, and Edoga, 2015; van der Velde, Bossink and Jansen, 2003). As
such the present study will also investigate whether or not gender differences occur in
employees’ job involvement levels.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Ever since job involvement first came up in literature numerous studies have been carried out
on it both to conceptualise and operationalize it. Also efforts to establish the determinants of job
involvement have yielded positive results with the classification of the determinants of job
involvement into personal and organisational factors. In examining employees’ job involvement,
some researchers have paid attention to the link between it and other work attitudes such as
performance, job satisfaction and organisational commitment (Raymond and Mjoli, 2013;
Omoniyi and Adedapo, 2012; Akinbobola, 2011; Chughtai, 2008). Other researchers have
studied the relationship between gender and career stage on job involvement of employees
(Dannefer, 1984; Lorence and Mortimer, 1985; van der Velde et al., 2003; Arogundade and
Olunubi, 2013).
Lawler (1992), Pfeffer (1994), and Mudrack (2004) have suggested that job design and
specific attributes of work situation can influence job involvement of employees. In line with
this, it may be proposed that altering the schedule of work may impact on the level of job
involvement shown by employees. However, apart from Martin and Hafer’s (1995) study that
reported that job involvement is higher among full time employees compared to part-time and
contractual employees, not much has been done to examine the influence of work arrangements
such as telecommuting on job involvement. Hence, this study aims to fill in the gap in literature.

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1.3 Research Questions
From the discussion above, this study therefore aims to propose answers to the following
questions:
1. Does telecommuting affect job involvement of employees?
2. What influence will tenure of employees have on their job involvement?
3. Will age of employees affect their job involvement levels?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to examine the influence of flexible work arrangements
(telecommuting) on job involvement of employees in some selected private sector organisations.
However, the specific objectives of this study are to:
1. examine the influence of telecommuting on job involvement of some private sector
employees;
2. assess the influence of employee’s tenure on their job involvement; and
3. examine the effect of employees’ gender on their job involvement.
1.5 Significance of the Study
Job involvement levels displayed by employees have been associated with a number of
desirable work outcomes such as increased performance, organisational commitment, and
organisational citizenship behaviour (Raymond and Mjoli, 2013; Chughtai, 2008). These
outcomes are of interest to managers, organisational development personnel, and industrial-
organisational psychologists to mention a few. This is because these work outcomes serve to

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increase the efficiency and profitability of organisations. As such organisations are always
seeking ways and means to increase job involvement levels of employees. One of the ways to do
this could be by providing flexibility in the work arrangements available to employees. The
importance of this study therefore is to examine the extent to which telecommuting as a flexible
work arrangement can be used to increase the job involvement level of employees and thus
contribute to the existing literature in the field of job involvement.
This study is expected to be of benefit to different stakeholders in the employment
relationship viz employers, employees, government, policymakers, industrial-organisational
psychologists and overall to the job involvement field of research. To the employers the results
from this study is expected to shed more light on whether or not influencing organisational
characteristics such as providing flexibility in the work scheduling can affect employees’ job
involvement. This is of import because knowing specific steps to take to increase employee’s job
involvement is of interest to employers. On the part of employees this study can be of benefit to
them by providing knowledge about what can affect their involvement levels. This is necessary
because job involvement has been linked to desirable work outcomes such as improved job
performance which will increase productivity of their employers. This increase in productivity of
their employing organisation may server to increase the rewards that will come to them. For
government as an employer the study will be of same benefit attributed to employers above. As a
regulator and policymaker however, this study is expected to urge government to create acts,
legislations, and policies that will further support the provision of flexible work arrangements by
employers for their employees. Also since telecommuting has been associated with reduced
pollution and offering of employment to previously ignored segments of the society, this study
will therefore provide the needed impetus to support legislations for telecommuting and other

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flexible work arrangements. For industrial-organisational psychologists and other researchers in
the job involvement field, the study aims to answer the question about whether or not job design
in particular work arrangements will influence employees’ job involvement levels. It is also
expected to provide a fresh perspective to the job involvement literature, that is, how flexibility
in the nature of work can impact on the involvement levels of employees. This may then spur
further research along these lines and hence contribute more to the store of knowledge available
on job involvement and flexible work arrangements.
1.6 Scope of the Study
This study will be carried out amongst employees of selected private sector organisations
in Lagos State. These companies are Nestlé Nigeria Plc, a multinational consumer product
company; Jumia Nigeria, an Ecommerce company; Roche Pharmaceuticals, a multinational
biopharmaceuticals company; AIICO Insurance Plc; Mutual Benefits Life Assurance Plc; ARM
Pension Fund Administrators; GlaxoSmithKline Nigeria Plc, a multinational consumer product
company; Spectranet Nigeria Limited, an internet services provider company; WriteHouse
Collective, a book services company; Procter and Gamble, a multinational consumer goods
company; and Prohealth HMO, a health maintenance organisation. The choice of these
employees was influenced by the fact that their locations and the nature of work they do allow
for telecommuting. The dependent variable of the study is job involvement while the
independent variables are telecommuting, job tenure, and gender of employees.

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1.7 Definition of Terms
Telecommuting: This is a type of flexibility in where work is done and it involves getting work
done in a location that is different from the organisation’s conventional office. Workers have the
option of working either from home, another designated satellite office, a neighbourhood work
centre, or on-the go, that is, mobile working.
Job Involvement: Job involvement is defined as the degree to which a person psychologically
identifies with his/her job. Job involvement is related with the work motivation that a person has
with a job. It is the degree to which one is cognitively preoccupied with, engaged in, and
concerned with one’s present job. Job involvement refers to the psychological and emotional
extent to which you participate in your work, profession and company beyond simply punching
in, performing your tasks and punching out.
Job Tenure: This is defined as the length of time a position is occupied, the amount of time that a
person holds a job, office, or title. It also refers to the status of holding one’s position on a
permanent basis without periodic contract renewals.
Gender: This refers to socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate for men and women. In the context of this research gender is
construed as being male or female.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual clarification
2.1.1 Job Involvement
The concept of job involvement has been conceptualized in different ways by as many
researchers that have attempted to study it. Dubin (1956, 1968) in his work conceptualised job
involvement as “the degree to which the total job situation is a central life interest, i.e., the
degree to which it is perceived to be a major source for the satisfaction of important needs”. In
the same vein Lawler and Hall (1970) defined it as “the degree to which a person perceives his
total work situation to be an important part of his life and to be central to him and his identity
because of the opportunity it affords him to satisfy his important needs”. Lodahl and Kejner
(1965) and Guion (1958) were other researchers which shared this same view of job involvement
as being when an employee sees the job as a central life interest.
A second attempt at conceptualizing job involvement sees it as the extent to which the
employee is able to participate in decision making about the job. Allport (1943) defined job
involvement as “the degree to which an employee is participating in his job and meeting such
needs as prestige, self-respect, autonomy, and self-regard”. Similar to this Gurin, Veroff and Feld
(1960) indicated that personal involvement in the job depends on the extent to which an
individual seeks some self-expression and actualization in his work. Bass (1965) on his part
believes that the opportunity to make job decisions, the feeling that one is making an important
contribution to company success, the chance to set one’s own work pace, and self-determination
lead to the strengthening of job involvement. An attempt to measure this participation type of

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involvement was suggested by Vroom (1959, 1962). He proposed that participation type of
involvement can be measured by asking how much an employee participates psychologically in
his job (for example asking how much say or influence the employee has on what goes on in his
job).
A third conceptualization is the self-esteem type of involvement (Saleh and Hosek,
1976). In this regard job involvement is seen as the importance of work to a person’s self-esteem
or sense of worth. (French and Kahn, 1962; Siegel, 1969; Iverson and Reuder, 1956). Hackman
(1968) was of the opinion that this type of involvement makes employees committed to their
goals as achieving such goals is important to their self-esteem.
A fourth conceptualization sees job involvement as the degree to which the employee
perceives that his job performance is consistent with characteristics that are central to his self-
concept. This is known as self-consistency type of involvement (Vroom, 1962, 1964; Kaufmann,
1962; Aronson and Carlsmith, 1962).
In summarizing the above conceptualisations, a person is said to be job involved when
(1) work to him is a central life interest; (2) he actively participates in his job; (3) he perceives
performance as central to his self-esteem; and (4) he perceives performance as consistent with
his self-concept.
Kanungo (1982a) on his part defined job involvement as “an individual’s psychological
identification or commitment to his or her job”. He placed emphasis on the psychological
relationship between an employee and his job. He also differentiated between job and work
involvement and stated that job involvement had to do with the employee’s current job while
work involvement had to do with the belief about work in general. Work involvement, he said, is

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the one that can be influenced by the protestant work ethic or early socialisation as opposed to
Lodahl and Kejner’s (1965) view. Individuals who display high involvement in their jobs
consider their work to be a very important part of their lives and whether or not they feel good
about themselves is closely related to how they perform on their jobs. In other words, for highly
involved individuals, performing well on the job is important for their self-esteem (Lodahl and
Kejner, 1965). As a result of this people who are high in job involvement genuinely care for and
are concerned about their work (Kanungo, 1982b). Job involvement is how people see their jobs
as both a relationship with the working environment, the job itself and how their work and life
are commingled. This definition implies that employees who are highly involved in their job will
see work “as an important part of their self-concept” (Lawler and Hall, 1970), and that jobs
“define one’s self-concept in a major way” (Kanungo, 1982). Such persons demonstrate a strong
desire to be at work, are willing to exert themselves to cope with the demands of their job and
experience work activities as self-rewarding (Agarwala, 1978)
Cohen, (1999) explained that job involvement has a highly significant relation with the
work, and is considered rightly as the reflection of the experiences employees have at work.
According to Mudrack, (2004) some special attributes related to the job push individuals to be
involved in their job. In line with that Dimitriades (2007) has identified the impact of work
environment and conditions on employee’s performance as well as on involvement level. He
found that the work environment affects individual’s involvement level and if the work
environment is very good it will be beneficial for both employee and employer. Individuals
particularly get involved in certain activities when it is seen as having a potential of satisfying
certain salient psychological needs (Kanungo, 1979, 1982b). It has positive organisational
implications, influencing the degree to which the person supports organisational goals, and thus

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advancing productivity and efficiency (Brown, 1996). A positive state of intense psychological
identification with one’s job also leads to positive personal results of motivation, goal directed
behaviour, personal growth and work satisfaction (Hackman and Lawler, 1971; Kahn, 1990;
Lawler and Hall, 1970; Schultz and Schultz, 1994 (as cited in Van Wyk, Boshoff and Cilliers,
2003). Hung (2008) stated that job involvement is one’s cognitive needs’ fulfillment, which
assists him or her to work harder and boost up his or her performance.
Tang, Singer, and Roberts (2000) maintained that there is a significant difference in the
level and extent of job involvement in different types of work. This is supported by the definition
of job involvement given by Hirschfeld and Field (2000) who defined it as how people perceive
their jobs in relation to (i) the working environment, (ii) the job itself, and (iii) how their work
and life are integrated. Socio-demographic and psychological variables can affect job
involvement since it is opined that job involvement is a consequence of work situations and
individual differences (cited in Aderibigbe, Igboanusi, and Gwaison, 2014).
In particular, any effort to maximize organizational effectiveness requires a higher
degree of job involvement among members of an organization (Elankumaran, 2004).
Furthermore, organizations need to know how to achieve the highest degrees of job involvement
or improve these levels. Although all organizations likely aspire to encourage a high degree of
job involvement, this effort is extremely difficult, largely because of the inherent differences in
the degrees of job involvement among employees. These differences may be due to variations in
personality, a key individual difference variable.
Research studies over the past two decades, which have explored the construct of job
involvement, have approached it from two different perspectives (Sekeran, 1989; Sekeran and
Mowday, 1981). First when viewed as an individual difference variable, job involvement is

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believed to occur when the possession of certain needs, values or personal characteristics
predispose individuals to become more or less involved in their jobs. For instance Rabinowitz
and Hall (1977) in their review of literature on job involvement found that individual
characteristics such as age, education, sex, tenure, need strength, level of control and values were
linked to job involvement. They also stated that an individual who had strong work ethic would
probably be highly job involved. Some employees might require a number of needs, values or
traits that led them to become involved in their jobs (cited in Teng, 2010). According to Kanungo
(1982), job involvement could be viewed as a cognitive state of psychological identification
either in the context of a particular job or with work in general. The psychological identification
with a particular job or work in general depends on the relatively important need both intrinsic
and extrinsic and the individual perception about the need-satisfying potentialities of the job.
Misra and Kalro (1981) in their study on middle and senior level managers found that job
involvement was related to the level of satisfaction of one’s salient needs, be they intrinsic or
extrinsic. Job involvement was higher for those managers whose salient needs were met and it
was lower for those whose salient needs were not met. Gorn and Kanungo (1980) stated that job
involvement was typically related to the intrinsic rather than extrinsic needs. Thus a person’s job
involvement had been considered to be a function of intrinsic factors rather than extrinsic factor.
The job itself could help an individual to meet his/her intrinsic growth needs (Kanungo, 1982),
while organization could help an individual to meet his/her social and other extrinsic reward
needs (Angle and Perry, 1981).
Seeman (1971) specified five need deprivation. Among these were powerlessness,
meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self-estrangement. Deprivation, that is, self-
estrangement is when the conditions of work are not intrinsically rewarding but are only for

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instrumental purposes. Self-estrangement is likely to happen when the work is unable to satisfy
higher order intrinsic needs. This indirectly suggests that job involvement was likely to have
positive results when the intrinsic needs were satisfied
The second perspective views job involvement as a response to specific work situation
characteristics. In other words certain types of jobs or characteristics of the work situation
influence the degree to which an individual becomes involved in his/her job. For example
research has demonstrated that job involvement has been related to job characteristics such as
task autonomy, task significance, task identity, skill variety and feedback and supervisory
behaviours such as leader consideration, participative decision making and amount of
communication (Brown, 1996).
Fostering job involvement is an important organizational objective because many
researchers consider it to be a primary determinant of organizational effectiveness (Pfeffer,
1994) and individual motivation (Hackman and Lawler, 1971). These links stem from the
theoretical notion that being immersed in one’s work increases motivational processes which in
turn influence job performance and other relevant outcomes like turnover and absenteeism
(Diefendorff, Brown, Kamin and Lord, 2002, 2002). Katz and Khan (1966) stated that job
involvement is a necessary condition if an individual is to accept fully the organization demands
placed upon him by his membership in organization. The degree of job involvement is related to
the level of aspiration and also to the degree of internalization of organizational goals. According
to Jones, James, and Bruni (1975) job involvement was found to be positively correlated with
age and length of time that a person has been on a job whereas Mannheim (1975) found no
relationship between them. Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) have presented the profile of a job
involved person as one who is a believer in the Protestant ethic, is older, has internal locus of

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control, has strong growth needs, has a stimulating job, participates in decisions affecting him or
her, has a history of success and is less likely to leave the organization.
One perspective views job involvement as a function of socialization experiences
occurring before entry to the labor force. The importance attached to the job is considered to be
fairly stable in adulthood, unaffected by working conditions (Dubin, 1956). Accordingly, people
who internalize Protestant Work Ethic values at an early age will be more involved in their jobs
irrespective of their subsequent situational contexts. It has been argued that today's older workers
should have greater job involvement than younger workers because of the presumably greater
importance placed on the value of work in earlier decades (Cherrington, 1980). A contrasting
position is represented by Vroom (1962) who argues that the nature of the work setting will exert
an important influence on work-related attitudes and values. This second position implies that
psychological involvement in work will fluctuate in response to changing work attributes over
the course of the career. Adherents of this job situation explanation assume that people will be
more satisfied and involved in their work-roles the greater the available, or potential,
occupational rewards (Kanter, 1977; Kanungo, 1982; Humphrey, 1985). Given that older
workers often have the better jobs (Wright and Hamilton, 1978), they might be expected to
manifest stronger job involvement than their younger counterparts.
There are certain types of positive involvement which contribute to the definition of job
involvement. They are conformity, flexibility, motivation and an acceptance of organizational
policies demonstrated through obedience in employee relationships. (Fletcher, 1998). Low job
involvement would lead to job and organizational alienation, rambling, and separation of life and
job. High job involvement brings about positive results and makes people to work more than
their responsibility. It also makes employees become interested in, contribute to and engage in

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the organization, and enjoy from its membership. The general assumption is that high job
involvement is an inherently desirable feature of employees. People with high job involvement
are satisfied with their job, show positive spiritual motive at work, and are highly committed to
their coworkers and organization. Furthermore, people with high job involvement attach more
importance to their job, barely think of quitting, and are expected to work in their organization
for some years (cited in Gorji, Etemadi, and Hoseini, 2014). Carson, Carson, and Bedeian (1995)
(cited in Teng, 2010) argued that people with high levels of job involvement would most likely
be satisfied with their jobs and be highly committed to their careers, and professions. Hackman
and Lawler (1971) also mentioned that when individuals are devoted to their work, their
motivation may increase, which could positively affect their job performance. Mudrack (2004)
explained that highly involved people had the tendency not to give up easily, might feel a moral
obligation to be involved with their jobs, and might tend to be set in their way. In this sense,
these highly involved people would do whatever they could to overcome the difficulties they
face at their work. De Hoogh, Den Hartog and Koopman (2005) mentioned that employees who
felt good about their job would exert more effort to keep the satisfying jobs and would increase
employee’s willingness to invest more effort and enthusiasm on the job (cited in Teng, 2010).
Elankumaran (2004) mentioned that an individual involved in his/her job would care about the
tasks to be undertaken.
According to Kanungo (1982), job alienation and involvement are two superficial
phenomena of a single object, they are two polarized trends of one aspect. When job
involvement decreased, job alienation would increase. Similarly, whenever job alienation was
reduced to a certain extent, it creates a sense of job involvement. Frone, Russel and Cooper
(1995) stated that the job-involved person was not especially likely to show high level

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involvement in non-work related activities. Therefore, this suggested that the job-involved
person was truly devoted to their job and gave less devotion to other activities such as recreation,
charity events, and other pleasure activities. Smith and Brannick (1990) had related job
involvement to the concept of expectancy, that is, the extent to which a worker perceived desired
rewards as a result of performance outcome.
Irrespective of the positive effects of high level of job involvement, a possible link with
greater job stress has been suggested. Workers who are highly involved in their jobs may
experience greater stress because they place such great importance on their jobs. When things do
not work out at work, workers with high levels of job involvement may take it more personally
than employees who have lower levels of job involvement. This extra level of caring may cause
discomfort and stress. It could also be that those with high job involvement do not have a
balanced life because of their identification with their jobs. This, in turn, could lead to increased
stress for these individuals (Lambert, Cluse-Tolar, and Hogan, 2007).
According to Blau and Boal (1987), job involvement is a better predictor of voluntary
turnover than absenteeism. They suggested that organizational commitment and job involvement
serve as complements relative to prediction of the voluntary turnover process. They also report a
significant interactive relationship between the two variables (Blau and Boal, 1989). Employees
who display high levels of organizational commitment and of job involvement may be the least
likely to engage in the voluntary turnover process because they are involved in and committed to
both the job and the organization. O'Reilly and Chatman (1986) report that job involvement is a
consequent outcome of psychological commitment to an organization.

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2.1.2 Telecommuting
Telecommuting is also known as teleworking, home-working, working-at-a-distance, off-site
working, or remote working. Depending on which country the concept is been used the name
used varies accordingly. According to the Tennessee Advisory Commission in
Intergovernmental Relations (TACIR), telecommuting allows individuals whose jobs can be
conducted away from the office to do so remotely from home or a satellite location. (TACIR,
2008). The Boston College Center for Work & Family define telecommuting as a schedule in
which employees conduct their work off-site for some portion of their core working hours.
Research indicates that telecommuting first became popular in the 1970s when Jack Nilles
coined the terms “teleworking” and “telecommuting”. Nilles also pioneered the first research
attempts on telecommuting with partial funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF).
(Centre for Work and Family, 2002). The underlying concept behind telecommuting is that work
is no longer a place you go to but something you do. There are basically three forms of flexible
work arrangements viz: flexibility in the scheduling of hours worked; flexibility in the amount of
hours worked; and flexibility in the place of work. (Georgetown University Law Centre, 2010).
Teleworking is a flexible work arrangement that offers flexibility in the place work is done. Put
in a different way, teleworking can be said to be a programme that allows employees work a
portion of their normally scheduled work hours from a remote location. The advent and
improvements in Information and Communications Technology paved the way for teleworking.
Telecommuting covers a variety of remote locations. Typical locations include:

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 Home-based telecommuting/Electronic home work: This is the most widespread form of
teleworking and it involves the worker working from his/her own home. Employee may
work from home one or more days in a week depending on the arrangement with the
employer. To facilitate this work necessary tools like computers, fax machines, internet
connectivity are provided by the employer.
 Satellite offices: Instead of the conventional office, employees work at a location
convenient to themselves and/or their customers. A satellite office houses only employees
from a single firm. In some sense, it is a branch office whose purpose is to alleviate
employees’ commute. The satellite office is equipped with office furniture and equipment
provided by the firm.
 Neighbourhood work centre: Although similar to the satellite office, a neighbourhood
work centre however differs in the sense that it houses more than one company’s
employees. In other words, several companies may share the lease on an office building
but maintain separate office areas within the building. Office suites may be furnished by
the site owner or by the respective renting firm
 Mobile working: This involves employees whose work entails a great deal of travel or
who are frequently on the road such as salespersons, investigative reporters, and so on.
Such employees use telecommunications equipment to work from places such as cars,
hotels, or home. (Di Martino and Wirth, 1990).
Telecommuting programs can be full - or part-time, formal or informal, and employee- or
company-initiated. Employees who telecommute full-time conduct all of their work off-site in a
location other than their employer’s office with little to no face-to-face interaction with managers
and co-workers. Employees who telecommute part-time on the other hand conduct some, but not

21
all of their work from a location other than their employer’s office and interact with managers
and co-workers on a limited but scheduled basis. Formal telecommuting programs are
characterized by a contract between the employee and employer that outlines the specifications
of an individual’s telecommuting arrangement. This contract could include information such as
the specific days that the individual will work off-site, hours the individual will be available to
clients/customers/colleagues, frequency with which an individual will respond to voicemails/e-
mails, and objectives/deadlines for the completion of work tasks. Informal telecommuting
programs are usually not supported by contract and may be structured to include only one
scheduled day of telecommuting per week, month, and so on or simply allowing the flexibility to
work from home as the need arises. Employee-initiated telecommuting typically stems from the
employee’s desire to reduce commute time, mitigate the disturbances to work encountered in an
office setting, or more efficiently manage and balance the demands of work and family.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that many roles can be done more productively with a
telecommuting arrangement. This is especially true for positions that involve a high percentage
of reading, writing, or other work activities requiring extended periods of focused concentration.
Company- initiated telecommuting arrangements are often aimed at reducing costs (for example
facilities costs or costs associated with lost productive employee time due to difficult commutes)
or to retain highly talented personnel who would not be able to work for the organization in a
traditional work arrangement. (Center for Work and Family, 2002).
The growth of telecommuting has been attributed to a number of reasons or factors.
Igbaria and Guimaraes, (1999) attributed this to demands from three constituencies namely
employees, organizations, and society. First, employee demands for more flexible work
arrangements resulted from substantial changes to the family structure. The rapid reduction in the

22
number of traditional families with working husbands and stay-at-home wives is an example of
this. Second, organizations, because of demographic changes, need to make accommodations to
attract and retain employees. The next generation of workers will be much smaller than the
current workforce. As older workers, who are experienced and trained retire, the smaller pool of
younger workers causes a shortage of needed employees. Flexible work options are expected to
be required to recruit and retain high-quality employees. Cost reduction and productivity
improvement can also push organizations to adopt telecommuting programs. Finally, societal
demands for environmental awareness are the third factor contributing to the demand for flexible
work. Telecommuting helps organizations deal with some regulatory requirements such as
pollution and employment of physically challenged individual directed regulations. Flexible
work also provides an organization with a contingency plan to cope with disasters (Igbaria and
Guimaraes, 1999). UC Berkeley (2013) classified the factors that contribute to the growth of
telecommuting into five categories: technological factors, economic factors, human and societal
factors, industrial-organisational factors and regulatory factors (cited in Olorunfemi, 2013).
It has been argued that there are some specific occupations for which telecommuting is
suitable. These occupations have been divided into two classes namely: clerical and secretarial
jobs on the one hand, and technical and managerial or professional jobs on the other hand. This
division also leads to a further distinction of telecommuting according to gender. The first class,
that is, clerical and secretarial workers are majorly female and the second class namely technical
and managerial workers are largely composed of men. Within these two broad classifications
specific jobs have been identified that allow for telecommuting. Examples include salespersons,
writers, marketing managers, lawyers, architects, computer operators, insurance agents,
engineers, counsellors, bank officers, and miscellaneous managers (Di Martino and Wirth, 1990).

23
A number of advantages have been attributed to telecommuting which creates a case for
its adoption in organisations. These advantages are in two-fold: advantages to the employer; and
advantages to the employee. For the employer telecommuting facilitates the hiring and retention
of top talents, boosts productivity, reduces business operating costs, lowers absenteeism, reduces
turnover, and creates opportunity to tap into human resources that would normally not be
available for traditional work arrangements such as nursing mothers, disabled, and older
workers. To employees telecommuting allows for reduction in time spent commuting to and
from work, helps to create better work-life balance, reduces stress, enables them work at hours
and places that stimulates their creativity, reduces distractions that could be found in the
traditional office (SHRM, 2008; Di Martino and Wirth, 1990; Igbaria and Guimaraes, 1999).
Despite its many advantages however, telecommuting has also been associated with some
disadvantages. One of such disadvantages is that rather than reducing the hours worked at the
employer’s main office, it actually leads to bringing more work home which eventually results in
a hard demarcation between work and home life. This eventually defeats its usefulness as a
work-life balance tool. Another disadvantage is that it may hamper interpersonal relationships
between telecommuters and non-telecommuters in the same organisation. It may also lead to
difficulty of managing on the part of managers and may create feelings of alienation in
teleworkers. Other arguments against teleworking is that it is not suitable for every category of
work and workers, it involves discipline on the part of the employee involved to be able to stay
committed to the work assigned (Noonan and Glass, 2012).
2.1.3. Job Tenure
Job tenure is defined as the length of time an employee has worked for their employer
(Cambridge Online Dictionary). It is typically measured by the length of time workers have been

24
in their current job or with their current employer and so refers to continuing spells of
employment rather than to completed spells (OECD Employment Outlook, 2001). Job tenure
differs from organisational tenure in that while job tenure comprises the total time an employee
performs the job, organizational tenure comprises the time an employee works in a particular
organization (Oktug, 2013). Job tenure has been implicated as an important determinant for a
number of workers’ attitude such as job satisfaction, absenteeism, performance and productivity.
The research relating tenure to absence is quite straightforward. Studies consistently show
seniority to be negatively related to absenteeism. Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining
turnover. The longer a person is in a job, the less likely he or she is to quit. Moreover, consistent
with research suggesting past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior, evidence indicates
tenure at an employee’s previous job is a powerful predictor of that employee’s future turnover.
Tenure has also been positively related to job satisfaction and has been said to be a more stable
predictor of job satisfaction than age (cited in Robbins and Judge, 2013). On the other hand a
long job tenure or organisational tenure has been said to result in negative job attitudes such as
job dissatisfaction, low job involvement and so on. This could be due to the following reasons.
Carson and Carson (1997) argued that “career entrenchment” can foster career dissatisfaction.
Individuals who perceive a poor fit between aspirations and their career, and yet see high
potential costs of quitting, may remain in their job even as they become less satisfied and less
engaged. Another possible reason is that length of time in an organization gives employees an
opportunity to discover and become disillusioned with organizational politics, which Vigoda
(2000) found is negatively related to job satisfaction and organizational commitment among
Israeli public servants. A third argument is that the factor that leads to a negative relationship
between length of tenure and job attitudes is length of time in the same position. As workers

25
become entrenched in one position, they become less involved in their organization. The career
entrenchment effect that Carson and Carson (1997) identified is likely to be even more important
for those stuck in the same position. Stevens, Beyer, and Trice (1978) reported that age is
significantly and positively correlated with job involvement, that length of organizational
membership is not significantly correlated, but that length of time in the same position is
negatively and significantly correlated with job involvement. This suggests that the key effect on
length of organizational membership is tenure in same position rather than organization (cited in
Moynihan and Pandey, 2007).
A number of factors have been fingered to have influence on employee’s job tenure in an
organisation. These factors include age, gender, what sector the employee works in (that is
whether private or public sector), education, occupation choice, union membership and so on.
With respect to age, younger workers are said to have shorter job tenures compared to older
ones. This has even acquired a new dimension with the increase in the number of millennials’
(persons born between 1977 and 1994) compared to baby boomers and other generation of
workers that can be found in the workplace. Gender also plays a key role in influencing the
number of years a person spends on his/her job with females portrayed as having shorter job
tenures compared to men. This has been explained away as been due to the fact that women take
a number of breaks over the course of their careers for child bearing and other care
responsibilities. Public sector employees are also said to exhibit longer tenure compared to their
private sector counterparts (Employee Benefit Research Institute, 2010; Mumford and Smith,
2004; Munasinghe and Reif, 2004; Meister, 2012).
Much of the early literature on job tenure concentrated on the extent to which workers
would move between jobs until they found a satisfactory match (Stigler 1962; Jovanovich 1979).

26
Freeman (1980), Freeman and Medoff (1984) further argued that the presence of trade unions
increased individual job tenure by providing a voice for grievances as well as increasing wages,
both of which resulted in lower quit rates. More recent models argue that tenure is explicitly the
outcome of the interaction of dynamic owns across both jobs and workers in the economy (Davis
and Haltiwanger 1990; Burgess, Lane, and Stevens, 1999; 2001). The distribution of job tenure
across current employees is clearly the outcome of the interaction of both supply and demand
effects. At the individual level, the decision to seek and continue market employment has been
well documented in the labour supply literature (Killingsworth 1983; Jovanovic 1979).
2.1.4. Gender
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to and differentiating between
masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include
biological sex (i.e. the state of being male, female or transgender), sex-based social structures
(including gender roles and other social roles) or gender identity. For many people the terms
“sex” and “gender” are interchangeable. Yet there is a difference between biological sex and
gender.
Sex is biological and includes physical attributes such as sex chromosomes, gonads, sex
hormones, internal reproductive structures and external genitalia. Sex is used to identify
individuals at birth as male or female. Gender, on the other hand is more complicated. In
addition to physical traits, it is the complex interrelationship between those traits and the internal
sense of self as male, female, both or neither as well as one’s outward presentations and
behaviours related to that perception. Sex refers to the biological characteristics that define men
and women. Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes

27
that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. To frame it differently male and
female are sex categories, while masculine and feminine are gender categories.
Gottfredson (1981) suggested that gender role would influence on a person’s
occupational choice. Cortes (2009) with a study in Aragon, Spain, on pre-university students
work values found that women chose profession to improve society and to help others while men
valued professions with higher income level than women. Men also valued social prestige and
stable salary more than women, and pre-university females gave more importance to intrinsic
values than the extrinsic values (cited in Teng, 2010).
Many debates, misconceptions, and unsupported opinions have been associated with the
issue of whether women perform as well on jobs as men do. The best place to begin to consider
this is with the recognition that few, if any, important differences between men and women
affect job performance. There are no consistent male–female differences in problem-solving
ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability, or learning ability.
Psychological studies have found women are more agreeable and willing to conform to authority,
whereas men are more aggressive and more likely to have expectations of success, but those
differences are minor. Given the significantly increased female participation in the workforce
over the past 40 years and the rethinking of what constitutes male and female roles, we can
assume no significant difference in job productivity between men and women. Unfortunately,
sex roles still affect people’s perceptions. For example, women who succeed in traditionally
male domains are perceived as less likeable, more hostile, and less desirable as supervisors.
Interestingly, research also suggests that women believe sex-based discrimination is more
prevalent than do male employees, and these beliefs are especially pronounced among women
who work with a large proportion of men. One issue that does seem to differ between men and

28
women, especially when the employee has preschool-age children, is preference for work
schedules. Working mothers are more likely to prefer part-time work, flexible work schedules,
and telecommuting in order to accommodate their family responsibilities. Women also prefer
jobs that encourage work–life balance, which has the effect of limiting their options for career
advancement. Gender discrimination that results in gender pay gap and glass ceiling effects that
adversely affects women are expected to impact on their work attitude. As such several research
has sought to determine whether gender differences will occur in respect to turnover rates,
absenteeism, job satisfaction; organisational commitment; organisational citizenship behaviour;
job performance; and work commitment (Robbins and Judge, 2013; Adekeye, 2013.; Khalili and
Asmawi, 2012; Salami, 2008; Chughtai, 2008)
2.2 Theoretical Review of Literature
2.2.1 Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is a process theory of motivation. It was developed by Victor Vroom. Vroom
explains that motivation is a product of how much one wants something and one’s estimate of
the probability that a certain action will lead to it. The key concepts of the expectancy theory are
that motivation depends on an individual’s expectancy (his or her perception of the chances or
probability) that a particular outcome will occur as a result of certain behaviour and how much
value an individual places on a specific outcome (this is known as valence). Expectancy theory
relates to choice behavior. The theory states that individuals will evaluate various strategies of
behaviour (e.g. working hard each day versus working hard three days out of five) and then
choose the particular strategy that they believe will lead to those work related rewards that they
value (e.g. pay increase). If the individual workers believe that working hard each day will lead
to a pay increase, expectancy theory predicts that this will be the behavior he will choose. The

29
main postulates of expectancy theory are centered on the belief systems of an individual.
Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. There are three key concepts in Expectancy
theory.
Expectancy I: Effort-Performance Relationship
Expectancy is the perceived belief concerning the likelihood that a particular behavioural act will
be followed by a particular outcome. The degree of belief can vary between 0 (complete lack of a
relationship between the act and a given outcome) and 1 (complete certainty that an act will
result in a given outcome). That is, the extent to which an individual’s belief system links effort-
performance relationship, that is, exerting a given amount of effort will lead to corresponding
level of performance. For instance, a student has a strong belief that if he puts in 10 hours of
reading per day, the chances of getting distinction in his examination is very high and at the same
time if he believes that just putting only 2 hours of reading per day, the chances of getting a pass
mark is very remote. The main emphasis is the differential levels of efforts in work will lead to
differential level of outcome. He might decide to put forth his best effort and perform an
excellent job, or he might decide to put forth a moderate level of effort and do an acceptable job.
If he puts in moderate effort, the final performance may be either acceptable or less acceptable.
Hence, for each of the effort–performance contingencies, the individual will attach some kind of
probability which would range from 0 to 1. For example, the individual might attach a
probability of 0.7 that he would do an excellent job if he puts in superior efforts and a probability
of 0.3 that it would end up to be only an acceptable job even when he puts in superior
performance.

30
Expectancy II (Instrumentality) Performance-Reward Relationship:
It refers to the relationship between first and second level outcomes. According to Vroom,
instrumentality can vary between +1.0 and -1.0. If the first-level outcome (e.g. high
performance) always leads to a pay increase, the instrumentality would be perceived as having a
value of +1.0. If there is no perceived relationship between first and second-level outcome, then
the instrumentality approaches zero. That is, the extent to which an individual’s belief system
links performance – reward relationship, that is, getting a desired level of performance will lead
to the attainment of desired outcome. The main emphasis is that the differential level of
performance in work will lead to differential level of reward outcome.
Valence:
Attractiveness of rewards: This is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an
individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the
individual. Expectancy theory helps to analyze the extent to which the belief system facilitates to
maximize the amount of effort put in their work. For instance, if a person feels that his skill level
is very deficient, no matter how hard he tries in his work, he is not likely to be a high performer.
Similarly, if a person believes his boss is biased or partial, he expects to get a poor appraisal
regardless of his level of effort. These examples suggest that one possible source of low
employee motivation is the belief that no matter how hard he or she works, the likelihood of
getting a good performance appraisal is very low. Similarly if a person feels that there is a weak
relationship between performance–reward in their job, the chances of getting outstanding
performance will be poor. The reason is that organizations reward system is not solely based on

31
the performance criteria but on the other non-performance factors. For example, when pay rise is
given to employees based on factors such as seniority, being cooperative; employees are likely to
see weak performance-reward relationship and feel demotivated. Since Vroom’s initial model,
expectancy theory has undergone at least four developments.
i) The theory was extended by making the distinction between extrinsic outcomes (e.g. pay and
promotion) and intrinsic outcomes (e.g. recognition, achievement and personal development).
Extrinsic valence refers to outcomes that come to the individual from others because of his
performance; intrinsic valences are associated with the job itself.
ii) A further distinction was made between two types of expectancies. Expectancy I is concerned
with the perceived relationship between effort and performance. Expectancy II, similar to
Vroom’s concept of instrumentality is concerned with the relationship between first level
outcomes (e.g. performance) and second-level outcomes or reward (e.g. pay, recognition, or
achievement). These expectancies have come to be known as EI (effort-performance expectancy)
and EII (performance-reward expectancy)
iii) It also concerns the broadening of the theory to include the possible effects of other work-
related variables on the major variables of expectancy such as: a) the possible impact of
personality variables (e.g. self-esteem and self-confidence) in the formation of expectancy
perceptions. b) the effect of past experiences on expectancy development and c) the inclusion of
ability and role perception as possible moderating effects on the relationship between motivation
and actual performance.

32
iv) The expectancy model is also extended to include the variables of work-related satisfaction.
Satisfaction is viewed as being a function of actual performance and the real rewards gained
from that performance.
In summary, the key to expectancy theory is the understanding of an individual’s goals
and the linkage between effort and performance, between performance and rewards and finally,
between rewards and individual goal satisfaction. Employees are described as having personal
goals for which working in an organisation is one of the means of achieving those goals. The
employees believe that organisational rewards or work outcomes could lead to the fulfillment of
these goals. As such depending on what an individual expects from a particular situation his
reaction will differ in different situation. Also organisational rewards are dependent on the
individual performance of the employees in the work situation. The third component is the belief
by the employee that a certain amount of effort put in by him/her will result in a high level of
performance. There is therefore relationship between efforts and performance; between
performance and rewards or work outcomes; and between rewards and personal goals (Parijat
and Bagga, 2014). Painting employee as rational persons then, Vroom was of the opinion that
employees will invest in activities that are expected to lead to the best rewards or outcomes in
line with their personal goals.
Linking this theory to this study therefore, one may imply that situational characteristics
of the organisation such as pay provided, degree of autonomy given to employees, work
arrangements made available such as flexitime, telecommuting, and so on, may serve to be a
source of motivation for employees. These situational characteristics if perceived by the
employees as a sort of reward will create an increase in their efforts which leads to an increase in

33
performance to enable them receive the reward. This increase in efforts and performance may
lead to an increase in their involvement levels with their jobs.
2.2.2 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Abraham Maslow, a Humanistic Psychologist, postulated this theory in 1954 as a result of his
study on people in organisations. According to him human needs are numerous and they are
ranked according to their importance to the person. As the more basic needs are satisfied, a
person seeks to fulfill the higher level needs. If one’s basic needs are not met, they claim priority,
and efforts to satisfy the higher level needs must be postponed. According to Maslow, there are
five different classes of levels of needs. These five levels include:
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs (security needs)
3. Social needs (affiliation needs)
4. Esteem needs and
5. Self-actualisation needs.

34
Figure 1: Diagrammatic registration of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow proposed that these needs are common to all humans and are arranged in a hierarchy of
prepotency as shown in the diagram above. Second level needs do not dominate until first-level
needs are reasonably satisfied. Third-level needs do not dominate until first and second level
needs have been reasonably achieved, and so on.
1. Physiological Needs: these include needs for food, shelter, and clothing and are said to
control a person’s behaviour at any time. After they are satisfied however, they decline in
importance and the person’s behaviour is then controlled by the next unsatisfied need in
the hierarchy.
2. Safety needs: these imply desires for protection against threat to life, danger, emotional
harm, desire for economic security and so on.
3. Social needs: these concern belonging and social involvement. They include association,
belongingness, friendship, and love. Some people are of the opinion that these needs
5th
Self-actualisation
needs
4th
Esteemneeds
3rd
Social needs
2nd
Safety needs
1st
Physiological needs

35
should be met mostly off the job, however, employees spend more than one-third of their
waking hours at work. As such the work environment should also serve to meet
employee’s social needs. Social needs reflect an individual’s desire for love, affiliation,
and acceptance in relation with other people.
4. Esteem needs: these relate to the need for achievement, status, and recognition. People
need to receive and give these sentiments. In a work environment, factors such as job title
and responsibilities, praise, and competent management contribute to satisfying these
needs.
5. Self-Actualisation: this fifth-level need means becoming all one is capable of becoming.
It is also the need to realize one’s capacities and potentialities by achieving specific
goals. An employee seeking to satisfy this need seeks challenging work assignments that
allow for creativity and opportunities for personal growth and advancement.
Employees as human beings belong to different levels on this hierarchy. Whatever level they
belong to is expected to influence their behaviour towards the different work situations they find
themselves in.
From the discourse on job involvement above it has been established that different factors
contribute to employees’ desire to involve themselves with their work. Depending on the
hierarchy an employee belongs to therefore and the work situation the employee finds
him/herself, job involvement shown by the employee is expected to be influenced by these
factors. The need satisfying potential of telecommuting as a flexible work schedule that may
create room for employees to involve themselves with other things or better balance other
responsibilities may also serve to influence levels of job involvement shown by employees.
2.2.3 Integrated Theory Model

36
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) reviewed and integrated previous research in this field and used this
basis to develop three major conceptualizations. For them, job involvement is related to three
classes of working variables: the dispositional approach held by the individual, the situation
determined approach held and the influence of the interaction between these approaches. In this
model no single class of variables shows a stronger relationship to job involvement than the
other. That is, dispositional and situational variables are equally important in explaining job
involvement. In the dispositional approach, job involvement is viewed as dependent on
individual personalities. The influence exerted by some stable personal characteristics such as
age, gender, marital status, external and internal control features, job seniority, dwelling
locations, the intensity of high-level work demands in terms of time and responsibility, and the
Protestant work ethics which will ensure individuals hold different work attitudes and behaviors.
Two such work attitudes are job involvement and job satisfaction. The individual is thought to
own a certain amount of desire or value, and the desire or value will drive them to work harder or
impede them from job involvement (Sekaran and Mowday, 1981). Job involvement is also a
personal characteristic, and thus it is never changed easily within an organization (Rabinowitz
and Hall, 1977). In a situation-determined approach, job involvement can be viewed as the
personal attitude towards the particular job. In this conceptualization, job involvement will be
affected by leadership style, the opportunities the individual has to be involved in decision-
making, social factors, job features and other conditional influences. Values are thus internalized
with job attitude. The interaction between disposition and situation approaches is labeled the
dispositional situation. In this approach, personal characteristics and the environment in
interaction are used to explain personal work attitudes and behaviors. When personal

37
characteristics and the situation reach congruence, the individual will develop high job
involvement (cited in Lubakaya, 2014).
2.2.4 Multidimensional model of job involvement
Yoshimura (1996), (as cited in Lubakaya, 2014), presented a multidimensional model of job
involvement. In his conceptual model he stated that job involvement is not a unidimensional
concept. Job involvement concept consist of three dimensions viz: emotional job involvement,
cognitive job involvement and behavioral job involvement. Emotional job involvement indicates
how strongly the worker is interested in his/her job or how much the worker likes his/her job.
Cognitive job involvement indicates how strongly the worker wants to participate in his/her job
related decision making or how important the job is in his or her whole life. And behavioural job
involvement indicates how often the worker usually takes extra-role behavior such as taking an
evening class to enhance job related skills or thinking about the job after leaving the office. This
multidimensional model of job involvement helps us to understand how job involvement has
evolved and how the concept has changed over time. Yoshimura further in his multi-dimension
model of job involvement classified the antecedents of job involvement into three categories
namely; individual personality variables, organizational variables and non-organizational
variables. According to this model the individual variable which affect the job involvement are
classified as individual personality such as locus of control, growth needs, working values and
the way of being socialized, and individual career such as career stage and successful job
experience. Organizational variables are those variables which affect job involvement such as
job type, job characteristics and human resource management and organizational attitude
variable such as job satisfaction, organizational satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
And the non-organizational includes non-organizational involvement and family involvement.

38
2.3 Summary of Theoretical Literature
Based on the theories discussed above it can be deduced that employees have different
needs, goals and ambitions which they are in the pursuit of fulfilling. These goals, needs and
ambitions determines the level of effort and performance they put in their work. These goals can
also be said to influence their attitude in different work situations.
Vroom’s expectancy theory states that depending on the rewards that accompanies a
particular performance, employees will put in different levels of effort in achieving the
performance level. This therefore implies that job involvement of employees will vary depending
on the level of effort or involvement they believe will result in the performance and ultimately in
the rewards they hope to get. Maslow’s need hierarchy theory was also examined. This is
because of the belief that employees belong to different levels on this hierarchy and depending
on the level they belong to this may in turn drive their involvement or non-involvement in their
jobs.
Other specific theories such as integrated theory, and multidimensionality theory of job
involvement were also examined in relation to their relevance to this study.
2.4 Empirical Review of Literature
2.4.1. Job Involvement and Telecommuting
A plethora of researches have been carried out on job involvement. Most of them
however are centered on relationship between job involvement and organisational commitment
(Raymond and Mjoli, 2013; Uygur and Kilic, 2009; Omoniyi and Adedapo, 2012; Mazayed,
Khan, Kundi, Qureshi, Akhtar, and Bilal, 2014; Ho, Oldenburg, Day, and Sun, 2012). Others
were focused on the relationship between job involvement and job satisfaction, the mediating

39
roles of job involvement and organisational commitment on job performance and organisational
productivity (Akinbobola, 2011; Omoniyi and Adedapo, 2012; Mushwana, 1998; Chughtai,
2008). Mishra and Shyam, (2005) studied the relationship between social support and job
involvement of prison officers in India. Chughtai (2008) worked on the impact of job
involvement on in-role job performance and organisational citizenship behaviour. Liao and Lee
(2009) examined the influence of personality traits on employees’ job involvement. The
relationship between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment amongst
Taiwanese nurses was studied by Ho et al., (2012). Omoniyi and Adedapo, (2012); Mazayed et
al., (2014); Raymond and Mjoli, (2013); Uygur and Kilic, (2009); Mushwana, (1998); and
Akinbobola, (2011) found significant positive relationships between job involvement and job
satisfaction on the one hand and organisational commitment on the other hand. Job involvement
has received substantial attention because of its role in generating positive organisational
outcomes, for example, employee commitment (Ahmed and Islam, 2011; Ketchand and
Strawser, 2001; Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Meyer, Paunonen, Gellatly, Goffin and Jakson, 1989),
employee motivation (Hackman and Lawler, 1971), job satisfaction (Gerpott, 1990; Mathieu and
Farr, 1991; Paterson and O’Driscoll, 1990; Shore, Thorton and Shore, 1990), in-role
performance (Brown, 1996; Brown and Leigh, 1996; Cron, 1984; Dubinsky and Hartley, 1986;
Mohsan, Nawaz, Khan, Shaukat, and Aslam, 2011) and organisational citizenship behaviour
(Diefendorff et al., 2002; Mohsan et al., 2011). Job involvement is negatively associated with
intentions to quit and positively related to job satisfaction and organizational climate perceptions
(McElroy, Morrow, Crum, and Dooley, 1995; McElroy, Morrow, and Wardlow 1999). In the
same way, Blau and Ryan (1997) (cited in Uygur and Kilic, 2009) put forward that job
involvement and organizational commitment are negatively related to absence, withdrawal

40
intentions and turnover as well as lateness and leaving work early and job involvement is
positively related to work effort and performance. According to Uygur and Kilic, (2009)
individuals with high levels of both job involvement and organizational commitment should be
the most motivated to go to work and to go on time while individuals with low levels of job
involvement and organizational commitment should be the least motivated. Both highly
motivated and non-motivated employees may miss work or come late for excusable reasons (for
example, illness, religious holiday, vacation time, and transportation problems). However, highly
motivated employees cannot be thought as non-motivated employees to miss work or come late
for inexcusable reasons. Individuals with higher levels of job involvement and organizational
commitment are likely to exhibit less unexcused lateness and unexcused absence than individuals
with lower levels of job involvement and organizational commitment (Blau, 1986; Blau and
Boal, 1987). Brown (1996) argues that job involvement will be highest when the work
environment: makes one believe that one’s work is meaningful; offers control over how work is
accomplished; maintains a clear set of behavioural norms; makes feedback concerning
completed work available; and provides supportive relations with supervisors and co-workers.
Many theorists have hypothesized that highly involved employees will put forth substantial effort
towards the achievement of organisational objectives and are less likely to turnover (Raymond
and Mjoli, 2013). Raymond and Mjoli (2013) also cited Argyris (1957) and McGregor (1960)
who saw job involvement as a means of aiding productivity and of creating work situations in
which there would be better integration of individual and organisational goals. Marcson (1960)
presented an argument and findings suggesting that one of the best ways to increase productivity
in organisations was to provide employees with jobs that are more demanding and challenging
(cited in Raymond and Mjoli, 2013). Recent studies of job involvement show that such

41
involvement enhances the individual’s satisfaction, while at the same time increasing
productivity for the organization (Hall and Lawler, 2000)
Khan, Jam, Akbar, Khan and Hijazi (2011) explored the relationship of job involvement as a
predictor of employee commitment among some Pakistan employees. They found that job
involvement has positive impact on the three types of commitment viz affective, normative and
continuance commitment. In addition, job involvement is considered as opposite of perception of
alienation (Argyris, 1964; Kanungo, 1979, 1982) and job involvement has significant relation
with turnover (Bass, 1965). It has been observed that job involvement has negative relationship
with threat of job insecurity, in other words if a highly involved individual perceives the threat of
job insecurity, he will react more negatively (Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt, 1984) as compared to
one whose level of involvement is low. Most researchers used job involvement as a forecaster for
turnover and absenteeism (Khan et al., 2011). Omolayo and Ajila, (2012) in their study of the
influence of leadership styles and organisational climate on job involvement and job satisfaction
of tertiary institution workers found that job involvement was influenced by organisational
climate and leadership style adopted. Similar to this, Brown and Leigh (1996) examined the
relationship between psychological climate of an organisation and job involvement, effort, and
performance. Their study showed that perception of a motivating psychological climate served to
improve job involvement of employees. Hallberg and Schaufeli (2006) sought to determine
whether or not the concepts of work engagement, job involvement and organisational
commitment were same or different. They concluded that the three concepts were empirically
distinct constructs.
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) in their study of the determinants of job involvement found
that both individual and organisational characteristics affects employees job involvement level.

42
According to them individual characteristics such as age, education, sex, tenure, locus of control
and values were linked to job involvement. Situational variables in the work environment such as
head‘s behavior, decision making process, interpersonal relations and job characteristics as well
as work outcomes such as job satisfaction, job performance, turnover and absenteeism were also
linked with job involvement. Ishwara (2010) attempted to find the determinants of job
involvement and job satisfaction among teaching professionals and found that organisational,
demographic and career-related variables were responsible for job involvement and job
satisfaction. On the argument whether individual variables alone accounted for job involvement
or organisational variables alone accounted for job involvement or whether there is an interaction
between the two, Schuler (1977) in his work established that job involvement was influenced by
both individual and organisational variables. Ruh, White and Wood (1975) got the same results
from their work. Rabinowitz and Hall, (1977) also came to the same conclusion.
Patchen (1970) identified job characteristics variables as team-work, physiological-
psychological stress on work, autonomy as well as challenge face in job. Many researchers had
previously linked job involvement to job characteristics. Some past researches focused only on a
single or few dimensions of job characteristics. For example Anderson and Williams (1996) in
their investigation studied only job autonomy and job interdependence, while Pearce and
Gregersen (1991) focused only on job interdependence (as cited in Chen and Chiu, 2009). Bass
(1965) pointed out that when employees are given higher decision-making authority and when
their contributions greatly affect their company’s success or failure, employees’ job involvement
will increase. Regarding the dimensionality of job characteristics, the most famous model is the
Job Characteristics Model (JCM) proposed by Hackman and Oldham (as cited in Chen and Chiu,
2009), which focuses on five core job dimensions: First is autonomy, which is the sense of

43
freedom and independence an individual has in carrying out work; the second is skill variety,
which indicates the extent to which an employee must use variety of skills to perform the work.
The third one is task identity, which is the extent to which an individual is able to complete a
whole piece of work and the fourth is task significance, which is the extent to which a job
impacts on others. The last is feedback from job, which indicates how much employees know
about their own job performance from the job itself. They suggested that job enrichment can
satisfy workers better; hence work characteristics are expected to increase job performance and
job satisfaction, simultaneously enhancing job involvement. Other studies on job characteristics
such as Meyer et al’s., (2002) meta-analysis determined job characteristics to be goal setting,
task variety, role ambiguity, subjective stress, and intergroup conflict. (cited in Lubakaya, 2014).
Lubakaya (2014) in his work on identifying factors affecting job involvement in Nzoia
Sugar Company identified four factors namely: motivation, personality, training, and job
characteristics to be central in determining levels of employees’ involvement. He suggested that
influencing these factors will serve to increase the levels of involvement shown by employees.
Ahamed and Islam (2014) in their study of factors associated with job involvement among
commercial bank employees in Bangladesh found that job satisfaction factors were mainly
responsible for the high level of involvement shown by employees. They also found some
employees who are not involved in their jobs because they believe there are other things more
important than their jobs.
Sowmya, Panchanatham, and Ayub (2011) studied job involvement as a significant
determinant influencing employees’ attitude in the banking sector. They found that job
involvement of employees was related with turnover intentions in that low levels of job
involvement increased the levels of turnover intention among employees studied. As cited in

44
Ahamed and Islam, (2014) other studies found a link between job involvement and absenteeism
(Blau, 1986; Farrell and Stamm, 1988; Shore, Newton and Thorton, 1990; Scott and McClellan,
1990), and to turnover or intent to leave (Baba and Jamal, 1991; Huselid and Day, 1991; Ingram,
Lee, and Lucas, 1991; Shore et al., 1990). However, major focus goes to the correlation between
job involvement and job satisfaction and both were found to be related significantly and strongly
(Baba and Jamal, 1991; Elloy, Everett, and Flynn, 1991; Gerpott, 1990; Mathieu, and Farr, 1991;
Paterson and O’Driscoll, 1990; Shore et al., 1990).
In the research of Liao and Lee, (2009), personality traits were found to influence job
involvement of employees with four of the big-five personality traits having a positive
association with job involvement with the exception of neuroticism which showed a negative
relationship. Some of these researches made use of the Kanungo’s (1982) job involvement scale
(Mushwana, 1998; Raymond and Mjoli, 2013; Uygur and Kilic, 2009; Akinbobola, 2011; Ho et
al., 2012; Van Wyk et al.,2003), while other made use of the Lodahl and Kejner’s 1965 scale
(Liao and Lee, 2009; Omoniyi and Adedapo, 2012; Chughtai, 2008).
None of the literature surveyed on job involvement however dealt with the influence or
relationship between job involvement and any work arrangement.
Little research has been done on telecommuting in Nigeria. The few ones seen focused on the
use of telecommuting as a tool to improve the quality of work life of women employees in
tertiary institutions in Nigeria and the relationship between teleworking and the demand for
office space in Lagos Island, Nigeria (Olorunfemi, 2013; Bello and Ashaolu, 2010). Also
Nwanesi, Chikwe, Dapper and Augustus-Daddie, (2015) examined the strategic contributions of
telecommuting to organisational performance. This dearth of research on telecommuting in
Nigeria can be attributed to many factors major of which is the slow uptake of flexible work

45
arrangements amongst employers in Nigeria despite the prevalence of this in other developed
nations. As such the empirical literature reviewed in this study comes majorly from foreign
sources. This may then raise the question of the applicability of these researches to the Nigerian
context.
Numerous researches have been conducted on telecommuting outside of Nigeria starting
from the work of Jack Nilles who coined the term in the 1970s. From then till now, researchers
have concerned themselves with determining the effects of telecommuting on different aspect of
the life of both the individual employee who telecommutes and the organisations offering
telecommuting.
Researches conducted as far back as the 80s have linked telecommuting with an increase
in productivity of the employee which eventually translates to increased productivity of
organisations (Baruch and Nicholson, 1995; Clutterbuck, 1985; Xenakis, 1997; Trembly, 1998;
(cited in du Gresi, 1999); Rathee, 2013). This increase in productivity has been said to be as a
result of flexibility in determining where to work which results in employees working at times
and places that best suits their creativity.
Telecommuting has also been discovered to increase the levels of satisfaction and
commitment employees feel with their jobs and organisations. A research carried out by Kenexa
Corp in 2007 cited in Crosby (2013) shows that 73% of telecommuters were satisfied with their
jobs compared with 64% of non-telecommuters. Telecommute Connecticut, 2002 also reports
that that 80% of telecommuters feel a greater commitment to their organisations. A study of the
determinants of turnover intentions among telecommuters and non-telecommuters conducted by
Igbaria and Guimaraes, (1999) also show a difference in turnover intentions between the two
groups with telecommuters showing less intention to leave the organisation and experiencing

46
lesser levels of role stressors than non-telecommuters. This high level of satisfaction shown by
telecommuters is said to arise as a result of them feeling that their organisations trust them
enough to allow them flexibility and does not see a need to closely monitor their work (Ritcher
and Meshulam, 1993; McCune, 1998).
The increased attraction and retention rates stimulated by telecommuting has also been a
subject of research. Baig, (1995); Ruppel and Harrington, (1995) (cited in du Gresi, 1999); and
Noonan and Glass, (2012) are some of the researchers that have studied this effect. This effect in
particular had been proposed as one of the major reasons for adoption of telecommuting as a
work arrangement. According to a research conducted by Society for Human Resource
Management (SHRM) on Workplace Flexibility in the 21st Century in 2008, 42% of HR
professionals surveyed reported a drop in absenteeism rate of telecommuters. Prior to this Nilles,
(1994); Greengard, (1995); and Fitzer, (1997) had also reported the same results.
In terms of demographic characteristics of telecommuters certain norms exist. These
norms include the belief that more women than men would take up telecommuting, especially
married women with care responsibilities. Mothers are also expected to telecommute more than
fathers. Education, type of occupation, and age of employees are also demographic variables that
are expected to influence the uptake of telecommuting by different cadres of employees. Results
from empirical research however is inconclusive. While some research supports the above
expectations, others do not. For example, studies conducted by DeSanctis, (1984); Kraut, (1989);
Yap and Tug, (1990); Belanger, (1999) and Popuri and Bhatt, (2003) seems to support the notion
that women take up telecommuting more than men, especially married women. Also they were
of the opinion that the presence of children, marital status of telecommuters increased the
propensity to telecommute. Mokhtarian and Salomon, (1997); Noonan and Glass, (2012);

47
Brenke, (2014) and Sarbu, (2014) on the other hand concluded that gender differences do not
occur in the uptake of telecommuting and in some cases showed men taking up telecommuting
than women. Peters, Tijdens and Wetzels, (2004); Popuri et al., (2003); and Noonan and Glass,
(2012) reported a higher propensity for the adoption of telecommuting among college degree
holders than among non-degree holders. Persons in professional and managerial occupations
were also shown to telecommute more than persons in other occupations. Older workers have
also been shown to telecommute more than younger workers. This may be because commuting
to the traditional workplace may be harder for them because of their ages (Kraut, 1989; Popuri et
al., 2003; Sarbu, 2014).
Another important area where studies have been conducted as regards telecommuting is
work-life balance. Some organisations offer telecommuting to their employees because of the
need to help them balance their work and non-work responsibilities. In the work of Noonan and
Glass, (2012), the authors were particularly concerned about the assumed benefits of
telecommuting to better work-life balance. They stated that for telecommuting to work as an
effective work-life policy it must not only be available to workers who need it but must also be
instrumental in substituting hours at home for hours onsite. To their dismay however they found
that not only was telecommuting yet to permeate every aspect of the American workplace but it
also was not helpful in reducing work-life conflict where it existed. It had rather become
instrumental in expanding the hours of work with telecommuters found to work overtime more
than 7 hours per week. In line with this the Centre for Work and Family also reports that from
research conducted 46% of telecommuters worked while on vacation as against 34% of non-
telecommuters. 24% of telecommuters also rated their work-life balance as good as compared
with 26% of non-telecommuters. Doherty, Andrew, and Johnson, (2000); Pratt (1999); and

48
Empirica, (1999) also reports that 42% of American telecommuters worked 50 to 75 hours per
week and that one-half of European telecommuters work more than 10 extra hours per week.
This has been attributed to the difficulty in creating a clear demarcation between work time and
personal time. Many telecommuters also admit to feeling guilty when they take a short break
from work when working at home (Centre for Work and Family, 2002). Other researchers
however are of the opinion that telecommuting is of great benefit in mitigating work-life
imbalance (Reinsch, 1997; Knight and Westbrook, 1997).
The disruptive effects of telecommuting to employees social networks at the workplace
has also been studied. Feelings of isolation, loss of morale, increased stress levels, loss of team
cohesiveness or synergy have been found to accompany most telecommuting situations. Feelings
of isolation and loss of morale has increasingly been cited as major disadvantages of
telecommuting by employees (Fitzer, 1997; Haddon and Lewis, 1994; Reinsch, 1997; Kurland
and Bailey, 1999 as cited in du Gresi, 1999). Solutions to these have also been suggested. They
include having telecommuters visit the organisation regularly and also remain involved in office
events. Also limiting the number of days that employees telecommute to less than five have also
been suggested (Guimaraes and Dallow, 1999; Johnson, 1997; Chapman, Sheeney, Heywood,
Dooley, and Collins, 1995). Chapman et al., (1995) were also of the opinion that employees may
be reluctant to take up telecommuting because of the perception that working remotely hinders
promotional opportunities (cited in du Gresi, 1999).
2.4.2 Job Involvement and Job Tenure
Job tenure as a demographic variable has been associated with levels of job involvement shown
by employees. Rabinowitz and Hall, (1977) found job involvement to be positively related to job
tenure. Shahril (1994) as cited in Teng, (2010) also found that tenure had significant influence on

49
employee job involvement. Akinbode and Fagbohungbe (2011) also reported a statistical
significance of tenure on job involvement of employees. Similar to this, Teng (2010) also found
that tenure influenced the relationship between work values and job involvement. Tenure might
also be the factor for lower satisfaction to their work values. Contradicting results were however
reported by van der Velde et al., (2003) and Gorji et al., (2014). Gorji et al., (2014) found no
significant relationship between tenure and job involvement while van der Velde et al., (2003)
found that though job involvement increased with age, it however decreased with professional
tenure.
2.4.3 Job Involvement and Gender
Research results from Lassk et al. (2001) showed that job involvement varied by gender where
saleswomen exhibited lower job involvement than salesmen. In a study by Beutel and Marini
(2005), they found that females consistently showed a strong pursuit for intrinsic orientation
while males were more extrinsically oriented. Bridges (1989) suggested the work value items
showed expected convergent validity patterns with respect to gender and academic major
differences (cited in Teng, 2010). In an investigation to determine the influence of gender and
organisational politics on job involvement of bankers by Oguegbe, Joe-Akunne, and Edoga
(2015), they found no significant main effect of gender on job involvement. Arogundade and
Olunubi (2013) report a similar result finding no gender difference in job involvement levels of
their study sample. Gorji et al., (2014) also reported no meaningful relationship between job
involvement and gender.

50
Reporting opposing results to these are Ekore and Onomerike, (2004); and Akinbode
Fagbohungbe (2011). Ekore and Onomerike (2004) in their study of the influence of employees’
sex, number of dependants and family responsibility on job involvement reported females being
more job involved than their male counterparts. Akinbode and Fagbogungbe (2011) also reported
a statistical significance of gender on job involvement
2.5 Summary of Empirical Literature
Job involvement as a work attitude has been the subject of numerous studies both within and
outside Nigeria. Its relationship with other work attitude such as job satisfaction, organisational
commitment, organisational citizenship behaviour, engagement have been examined. Factors
affecting levels of job involvement have also been identified to include individual and
organisational characteristics.
Different works that have been done on telecommuting and its’ influence on different domains of
organisational and individual life has been reviewed above. The productivity, absenteeism
reduction, attraction and retention effects of telecommuting has been critically examined. The
detrimental effect also in terms of loss of morale and feelings of isolation that telecommuting
creates has also been studied by different researchers. Conflicting result on its use as a work-life
balance tool has also been examined with some researchers claiming it works well as a balancing
tool while others argue that it creates more imbalance than balance. Telecommuting has also
been touted to increase levels of satisfaction and commitment of employees. However nothing
has been done to ascertain its effect on the level of job involvement of employees. In response,
this study seeks to determine whether or not there exists a relationship between telecommuting as
a work arrangement and the job involvement exhibited by employees. Studies about the
influence of tenure and gender on job involvement have also been reviewed above.

51
2.6 Research Hypotheses
Based on the literature reviewed above, the hypothesis for this study is as stated below:
H1: Telecommuting will have no significant influence on employees’ job involvement levels
H2: Job Tenure will have no significant influence on employees’ job involvement levels
H3: Gender will have no significant influence on employees’ job involvement levels
2.7 Operational Definition of Variables
The variables under investigation were operationalized and measured as highlighted below:
Job Involvement
This is a dependent variable in the study. It was measured with the Lodahl and Kejner’s Job
Involvement Scale (1965). The Lodahl and Kejner Job Involvement Scale consists of 20 items
phrased in form of short sentences to which respondents can indicate their level of involvement
ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Each item carries the 4-point Likert Type
response format ranging from strongly agree, through agree, to disagree and strongly disagree.
These responses were scored 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively.
Telecommuting
This is an independent variable in the study. It was measured with 5 items on the section B of the
questionnaire. The items are short sentences designed to gauge the understanding, opinion and
frequency of telecommuting by the respondent.

52
Job Tenure
This is also an independent variable in the study. It was measured with a single item on the
section A of the questionnaire. It is an open-ended item which required respondents to state the
number of years they have been on their current job.
Gender
This is another independent variable in the study. It was measured by a single item on the section
A of the questionnaire. It is a close-ended item which required respondents to indicate their
gender. Two categories were provided: (a) male (b) female to which respondents were required
to indicate which of the genders they are.

53
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter will cover the research design, study population, sampling procedures, research
instruments, procedures for administration of research instrument and treatment of data.
3.1 Research Design
This study adopted a descriptive survey design. This is because questionnaires were administered
to collect data on the variables being studied. The independent variables are telecommuting,
tenure, and gender while the dependent variable is job involvement.
3.2 Study Population
The target population for this study was made up of employees from selected private
organisations in Lagos state who telecommute at least once a week. These industries cut across
manufacturing, online retail store, pharmaceutical. These companies are Nestlé Nigeria Plc, a
multinational consumer product company; Jumia Nigeria, an Ecommerce store; Roche
Pharmaceuticals, a multinational biopharmaceuticals company; AIICO Insurance Plc; Mutual
Benefits Life Assurance Plc; ARM Pension Fund Administrators; GlaxoSmithKline Nigeria Plc,
a multinational consumer product company; WriteHouse Collective, a book services company;
Procter and Gamble, a multinational consumer goods company; Spectranet Nigeria Limited, an
internet services provider company; and Prohealth HMO, a health maintenance organisation.
3.3 Sample and Sampling Procedure
A total target sample of 200 employees in selected private organisations in Lagos states were
used for this research. Purposive sampling technique was employed in the study. Employees that

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