Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

1. Pasture, Rangeland and
ATTRA Grazing Management
A Publication of ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service • 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org
By Lee Rinehart In a time of high-cost inputs, pasture-based livestock production systems can naturally maintain soil
NCAT Program and plant integrity while growing healthy ruminants. This publication profiles the general types of
Specialist pastures and rangelands and offers information about management and expected yields. Weed man-
© 2006 NCAT agement strategies are also discussed and tips are offered to rehabilitate depleted land. Issues in graz-
Updated Nov. 2008 ing management, such as paddock development, plant selection, drought and plant toxicosis, are also
discussed. Resources and references are also presented.
Contents
Introduction ........................ 1
Temperate pasture ........... 2
Rangeland............................ 2
Managing soil and
forage resources ................ 3
Intake, sward density
and grazing period........... 5
Legumes and soil
fertility ................................... 5
Stocking rate ....................... 5
Ecological weed
management
in pastures ........................... 6
Multispecies grazing ....... 7
Pasture renovation
and establishment............ 8
Rotational grazing
and paddock size ............ 10
Photo by Lee Rinehart, NCAT
Overgrazing ...................... 12
Plant species and Sheep on native range in southwestern Montana.
systems for extending
the grazing season ......... 12
Prescribed grazing
Introduction with the use of high-grain rations. Grain-
fed ruminants typically require treatment
on rangeland .................... 13 Pasture is the basis of any livestock opera- for maladies such as acidosis, mastitis and
Developing a grazing tion that purports to be truly sustainable. It respiratory disease due to the fact that their
management plan on is especially important as the livestock sec-
rangeland........................... 14 immune systems have been seriously com-
Managing for drought .. 15
tor continues to experience extraordinarily promised. A singular focus on productivity
Plant toxicity ..................... 16
high fuel and other input costs. Pasture- often causes more problems than a systems
based production systems offer farmers and
Summary ............................ 18 approach. A well-planned and managed
ranchers the ability to let the ruminant’s
References ......................... 18 pasture-based operation can maintain rea-
environment and immune system work
Further Resources .......... 19 sonable production, reduce input costs and
together, thereby gaining an acceptable
achieve a positive economic return, given a
ATTRA—National Sustainable level of production while naturally main-
Agriculture Information Service well-conceived marketing plan.
is managed by the National Cen-
taining the integrity of the ecological con-
ter for Appropriate Technology nections between ruminants, the soil and Much of the grazing land in the United
(NCAT) and is funded under a
grant from the United States
the pasture plants. Ruminants on pasture States can be used more efficiently for live-
Department of Agriculture’s Rural experience fewer health problems due par- stock grazing. For instance, U.S. Depart-
Business-Cooperative Service.
Visit the NCAT Web site (www.
tially to reduced stress, whereas ruminants ment of Agriculture Agricultural Research
ncat.org/sarc_current. that are subjected to confinement have their Service scientists have utilized wheat pas-
php) for more informa-
tion on our sustainable
digestive physiology running at top speed ture and old world bluestem perennial
agriculture projects.

2. grass pastures, such as those that occupy the presence of high-yielding plant species
large sections in the Southern Great Plains, such as bromegrass and alfalfa. Temperate
and stocked them with double the number pastures will on average yield anywhere
of cattle they normally would when using from 2,000 pounds of dry matter per acre
intensively managed grazing techniques. per year to more than 12,000 pounds per
Even on the arid rangelands of the west- acre depending on the species, soil type,
ern United States, increased stock density growing season, grazing management and
coupled with decreased time on a pasture other environmental factors.
has been successful in increasing livestock
enterprise productivity while improving the Rangeland
condition of the rangeland.
According to the Society for Range Man-
The ecological processes that occur on tem- agement, rangelands are a type of land on
perate pastures and on arid rangelands are which the natural vegetation is dominated
basically the same, but occur much slower by grasses, forbs and shrubs and the land
on rangelands due mainly to temperature is managed as a natural ecosystem (SRM).
and moisture differences. The following In North America, rangelands include the
section is an attempt to clarify the nature of grasslands of the Great Plains stretching
both types of pasture ecology. from Texas to Canada, from the prairie states
of the Dakotas and Nebraska to the annual
Temperate pasture grasslands of California and forestlands
and wetlands throughout North America.
Temperate pastures are typically very
Included in this definition are arid shrub-
productive. They are characterized by
lands throughout the western United States,
well-developed soils, medium to high pre-
the arctic tundra, and mountain mead-
cipitation and moderate to rapid nutri-
ows and deserts throughout the Southwest.
ent cycling. They can be dominated by
Rangeland can also encompass pastures of
warm- or cool-season plants and occupy
introduced grasses, such as crested wheat-
niches from Maine to Florida, from Texas
grass, that are managed as rangelands.
to Minnesota and from Southern Califor-
Arid rangelands, which typify much of Ari-
nia to the Pacific Northwest coastal regions
zona, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
of Washington and Oregon. Many irrigated
Idaho, Montana, Oregon, California and
riverine pastures in the desert and Inter-
Washington, can yield anywhere from 200
Temperate pasture can mountain West also resemble temperate
to 1,500 pounds or more of dry matter per
be highly productive pastures due to deep soils, adequate mois-
acre per year.
with proper grazing ture from irrigation or high water tables and
management. Rangelands are typically characterized by
low precipitation, shallow soils and slow
nutrient cycling. They are usually domi-
nated by grasses, forbs and shrubs effi-
cient at water and nutrient utilization, so
practices that are appropriate to temper-
ate pastures, such as fertilization and plow-
ing, are often inappropriate on rangelands.
Regardless, rangelands can be very produc-
tive, providing sustainable income for ranch
communities while protecting valuable nat-
ural resources through appropriate grazing
strategies. Specific strategies for sustainable
rangeland management are covered below
in the sections Prescribed grazing on
rangeland and Developing a grazing
Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS. management plan on rangeland.
Page 2 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

3. greater germination of seeds
and encouraging regeneration
of pasture swards.
Rotational grazing is a proven
method of increasing the effi-
ciency of pasture systems.
Intensively managed rota-
tional grazing systems have
the potential of maintaining
pastures in a vegetative state
for most of the growing season
in many regions of the coun-
try. Coupled with the use of
Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS. stockpiled pasture and stored
forage, the possibility of year-
Native rangelands are more fragile than temperate pastures, and often Related ATTRA
require different approaches to management for sustainable production.
round forage finishing of live- Publications
stock becomes more feasible
in more parts of the country. Assessing the Pasture
Managing soil and In addition, intensively managed grazing Soil Resource
forage resources systems make it possible to feed livestock Dairy Resource List:
Fertile soil is the foundation of sustain- without concentrating wastes in manure pits Organic and Pasture-
able production. Soil macro-organisms and and lagoons, thereby maintaining nutrients Based
microorganisms are the external diges- within the pasture ecosystem and preventing Managed Grazing in
tive system that processes organic matter, them from becoming pollutants. Riparian Areas
delivering a smorgasbord of minerals, vita- An intensively managed pasture system is Multispecies Grazing
mins and other nutrients to the crop at a appropriate for maximizing gain per acre
metered pace. This contrasts the conven- and maintaining soil and pasture stand Nutrient Cycling in
Pastures
tional approach of flooding crops with a health. But to take advantage of the ben-
limited number of soluble fertilizer nutri- eficial qualities of an intensively managed Pastures: Sustainable
ents, leading to luxury consumption, imbal- pasture system, a grazier should pay careful Management
anced plant nutrition and a susceptibility to attention to grass stubble height after graz- Pastures: Going
disease and attack by insect pests. ing. A grazier should be aware of the direct Organic
Pasture systems are maintained through correlation between after-grazing stubble Paddock Design,
grazing and animal impact on the land, heights and pasture health. Fencing, and Water
which accomplish the following: Systems for
Livestock should be turned onto cool-sea- Controlled Grazing
• nutrient cycling through feces and son grass pastures such as orchardgrass,
wheatgrasses, timothy, fescues and more Rotational Grazing
urine;
when the grass is from 8 to 12 inches tall,
• timely defoliation and removal and removed when the stubble height is
of plant material that encourages from 3 to 4 inches tall. Cool-season grasses
regrowth; have the ability to regrow relatively quickly
• root death through leaf removal, after grazing, given enough time and soil
resulting in underground organic moisture. Cool-season grasses can regrow
matter accumulation and nutrient through tillering (new shoot growth from
cycling; the crown) or through sprouting new plants
• increased water-holding capacity by way of underground rhizomes, depend-
through accumulation of soil organic ing on the species.
matter; and Native warm-season grasses such as big
• hoof action that breaks soil surface bluestem, switchgrass and Indiangrass
and compacts soil, thereby allowing should not be grazed too short, as heavy
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3

4. defoliation can seriously reduce the grass’s
ability to persist over time. Warm-season Clip and weigh method
grasses will not take the kind of defoliation Construct a 2-square-foot quadrant frame
that cool-season grasses can without caus- from PVC or copper pipe. Each straight edge
ing harm to the pasture. It is also advis- should measure 17 inches. Randomly throw
the frame on the ground and clip all the plants
able to leave from 6 to 8 inches of stubble inside the hoop at ground level. Place the
after grazing during the growing season for clipped forage into a paper sack and repeat
native warm-season grasses. The extra leaf the procedure at least nine more times, plac-
area is needed for the plant to photosynthe- ing samples in separate paper bags.
size plant sugars and prepare for later win- 1. To determine percent dry matter, weigh
ter dormancy. A grazing system that leaves one sample in grams (453.6 grams per
a 12-inch stubble at frost is appropriate for pound, 28.47 grams per ounce), and place
these grasses (Conservation Commission of in a microwave for two minutes on a high
the State of Missouri, 1984). setting. Weigh the sample in grams and
repeat until no change in weight occurs.
Graze warm-season annual grasses such as Place a small dish of water in the microwave
sorghum-sudan just before heading when to prevent damage.
the plants are 2 feet tall. Livestock should
2. Calculate the dry matter percentage of the
be removed when these grasses have from 4 sample by dividing the dry weight by the
to 6 inches of stubble. Take care when graz- fresh weight and multiplying by 100.
ing sorghum-sudan and related grasses, as
3. Multiply the percent dry matter by the fresh
prussic acid poisoning can be a problem if
weights of the remaining samples.
grazed too early. See Plant toxicity below
for more detailed information. 4. Average the weights of all samples and mul-
tiply the dry matter weight in grams by 50
Grazing can begin when grass is shorter to get pounds per acre.
on warm-season bermudagrass, bahaigrass
5. Remember to adjust this figure for allow-
and buffalograss pastures because these able use. If you wish to use only half the
grasses have a more prostrate growth pat- forage in the pasture, multiply the result by
tern and can generally handle heavier defo- 0.50 to get pounds per acre for grazing.
liation. From 2 to 3 inches of stubble on
these grasses is not too short.
For this measure in Iowa and Missouri, each
Cool-season grass yields range from 4 to 6.5 inch of forage height equals 263 pounds per
tons per acre, and warm-season pastures acre of dry matter and has been verified by
can typically yield from 2.5 to 4 tons per numerous clip and weigh field studies. This
acre. In addition, pastures with grasses and measure should be calibrated for local con-
legumes grown together typically yield from ditions by clip and weigh method to obtain
10 to 15 percent more forage than monocul- accuracy.
ture pastures. Producers should determine A good rough estimate is 300 pounds of dry
the annual pasture productivity, as this will matter per acre per inch on a ruler. This
provide a baseline of information to make measure is likely to have from 50 to 80 per-
management decisions. cent accuracy depending on if you have cal-
ibrated your measurement procedure. Jim
Determining forage yield Gerrish’s values range from 150 pounds per
Forage yield can be determined with a pas- acre per inch in a fair stand to 600 pounds
ture ruler or a rising plate meter. A pasture per acre per inch in an excellent stand
ruler is just that: a ruler calibrated in inches as determined by clipping and weighing
placed on end at ground level, with forage numerous quadrants and comparing them to
height measured in inches. A rising plate sward heights (Gerrish, 2004). The vast dif-
meter measures density as well as height. ferences in the above estimates reflect dif-
A 20-inch by 20-inch plate weighing 2.6 ferences in pasture types. For example, ber-
pounds is dropped on a rule at waist height. mudagrass will most likely be different from
Page 4 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

5. bromegrass when measuring stand density Table 1. Animal intake by species
with a ruler or rising plate meter.
Intake (%
Intake in
Consideration must be given to forage qual- of body
Species pounds per
weight) per
ity and the species of livestock grazing day
day
the pasture. The higher the forage qual-
Mature cattle 2 to 3 20 to 30
ity (vegetative, growing grass and clover),
the greater the intake. Please refer to the Sheep 2.5 to 3.5 5 to 10
accompanying box for information on ani- Goats 4 to 5 3 to 5
mal intake by species. Understanding how
much an animal will eat each day can assist Legumes and soil fertility
producers in estimating forage demand. Legumes like clover, alfalfa, birdsfoot tre-
foil, sainfoin and vetch have the ability to
Intake, sward density and convert atmospheric nitrogen to the plant-
grazing period available form of nitrogen through the sym-
biotic work of rhizobium bacteria, which
Forage intake is directly related to the den-
occur naturally in a healthy soil. In a natural
A
sity of the pasture sward. Ruminants can
ecosystem, legumes can fix nitrogen at rates n animal’s
take only a limited number of bites per ranging from 25 to 75 pounds of nitrogen intake
minute while grazing, and cattle in partic- per acre per year. In cropping systems, the
ular will only graze for about eight hours decreases
amount is several hundred pounds (Linde-
per day. It is important to ensure that each the longer it remains
mann and Glover, 2003). For well-managed
bite taken by the grazing animal is the larg- diverse pastures, supplemental nitrogen fer- in a given paddock.
est bite possible. Cattle graze by wrapping tilization can be eliminated altogether. For
their tongue around and ripping up forage. pastures under high-density grazing sys-
Large bites of forage are therefore ensured tems, from 70 to 85 percent of the nitro-
by maintaining dense pastures. gen taken in by the animals is returned and
Dense pastures are pastures with actively cycled back to the soil in the form of feces
growing and tillering forage plants. Tiller- and urine. A diverse pasture with a signif-
ing occurs in grasses that are grazed or icant legume component that is managed
mowed while vegetative, resulting in the intensively with heavy stocking and frequent
activation of basal growing points and the moves has the potential to become a stable,
initiation and growth of new stems and closed system.
leaves. Tillering results in a plant covering
more basal area, therefore helping make a Stocking rate
pasture denser. Determining the initial stocking rate for a
given pasture is relatively simple, but not
The length of the grazing period, or time in
necessarily easy. It is simple because the
a paddock, also has a direct effect on pas-
calculations are relatively straightforward.
ture intake. An animal’s intake decreases
It is not easy because you must familiar-
the longer it remains in a given paddock.
ize yourself with basic forage growth princi-
This happens due to plant disappearance
ples and apply those principles to what you
as plants are grazed and cattle search for observe on your own pasture.
their next bite. The decrease in crude pro-
tein content begins roughly two days after There are several key issues to consider
the animals have been turned into the pad- when thinking about how many animals a
dock. Jim Gerrish has shown that as an pasture will support. Consideration must
animal remains in a paddock, intake and be given to forage production potential; uti-
liveweight gains decrease (2004). It is for lization patterns by livestock; the nutrient
this reason that most dairy graziers move content of the forage and forage growth pat-
high-producing cattle to new paddocks after terns; the plant species that comprise the
each milking. pasture; species diversity of the pasture
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5

6. plant community; and seasonal variations behave in very different ways because of
in temperature and moisture. differences in soil type and depth; indige-
nous or local plant cover; cropping systems;
Stocking rate can be determined using the
and temperature and water availability, not
following formula:
to mention field cropping history. By devel-
pasture size X pasture yield per acre oping a cropping system or perennial pas-
Number of animals = ture that utilizes nature’s own defenses and
daily intake X average animal weight X days of grazing achieves ecological balance, a sustainable,
pest-limited crop can be grown.
The formula is completed with the following:
1. pasture size in acres Do you really have a
2. pasture yield in pounds per acres of dry
weed problem?
matter Many plants that are considered pasture
weeds are highly palatable and nutri-
3. daily intake as a percent of body weight tious during the vegetative stage. Take, for
(2 to 3 percent for cattle, see Table 1 for instance, dandelion and plantain. Both are
other species) plentiful in many pastures, and producers
4. average animal weight in pounds for the can spend thousands of dollars spraying
grazing herd them with herbicides. They are, however,
valuable plants that occupy different root
5. length of the grazing season in days zones and deliver nutrients from different
Example: Determine the number of soil depths. They are also very nutritious
1,000-pound cows a 50-acre pasture and palatable when young. These and many
will support for 100 days, given a pas- other so-called weeds can be a valuable
ture yield of 3,000 pounds of dry matter contribution to sustainable pastures. Even
per acre. our so-called noxious weeds like knapweed
and kochia can be grazed by sheep, goats
50 acres X 3,000 pounds per acre and cattle with skilled management.
Number of animals =
0.02 X 1,000 pounds X 100 days Weeds are often a result of soil disturbance
and human interference in nature. Weeds
Number of animals = 75 are plants that occupy space that humans
do not want them to occupy, and farmers
For very high-quality pasture, the intake rate have many very good reasons for not want-
used in the calculation could be increased ing weeds to occupy certain spaces. Some
to 3 percent for cows. The intake rate may are non-native, invasive plants that have
also be increased to account for forage that the capacity to crowd out or compromise
is trampled or otherwise wasted. If the cal- the health of other plants and animals.
culations are for sheep or goats, the daily Those types of weeds may need concerted
intake and the average animal weight would control strategies. In agriculture we have
be different. See Table 1 for values. become very accustomed to taking reac-
More information on stocking rate is covered tive measures such as pesticide application
below in the section entitled Rotational or mechanical approaches such as cultiva-
grazing and paddock size. tion in order to eliminate unwanted plants
and establish a favorable environment for
the kinds of plants we choose to be there.
Ecological weed But if we can look at crop production and
management in pastures pasture as systems and begin to understand
Agricultural systems are very complex bio- how plants, animals and humans interact on
logical systems that operate in a particular a given landscape, weeds will become much
ecological balance. Each region of the coun- less of a problem. By managing croplands
try, indeed each watershed and field, might and pastures according to natural principles,
Page 6 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

7. we can significantly reduce weed problems. can even favor grass over legume growth, so
For more information see ATTRA’s Prin- pay careful attention to the legume compo-
ciples of Sustainable Weed Management nent of intensively grazed paddocks. Reseed
for Croplands. annual legumes by frost-seeding, feeding
seed to cattle, broadcasting in the fall or
Techniques for dealing with allowing legumes to go to seed to maintain
problem weeds in pastures legumes in these systems. See the section
Pasture renovation and establishment
Keeping weeds out of a pasture is much
for more information.
easier than trying to get rid of a bad infesta-
tion. Some management practices for keep- Most of all, know your pastures. Make it
ing pastures weed-free include: a point to understand soil types and how
they change with the aspect and slope of
• terminate low-producing, weedy
fields; the land. Obtain some reference guides
that will assist you in identifying the plants
• rotate perennial pastures with on your farm or ranch. Your Cooperative
annuals; Extension Service is a great place to find
M
• integrate a high-density rotational these. The more you know about what your
any plants
grazing system; pastures will produce, the better position
you will be in to make appropriate manage- considered
• know your pastures; and
ment decisions. pasture
• consider multispecies grazing. weeds are highly
Remember the principal concerns in man-
The aforementioned methods, used singly or palatable and nutri-
in combination, can easily be incorporated aging unwanted pasture plants are:
tious during the
into a pasture management system, setting • encouraging forage growth over
up a situation in which weeds find it hard vegetative stage.
weed growth through selection of
to get ground. When pasture stands such appropriate livestock species and
as alfalfa get too old, they often begin to proper timing of grazing;
decline and allow other plants to take over.
• ensuring adequate soil fertility through
Many times the grass component of the field
nutrient cycling, species diversity and
will increase as alfalfa decreases, but in
inclusion of legumes; and
instances of low fertility or drought, weeds
can take advantage of the open niche and • rotating non-erodible fields, espe-
become established. In these cases, termi- cially monoculture perennial fields,
nating and reseeding the fields is sometimes to break weed cycles.
recommended. Some producers refer to this Perennial pastures on non-erodible land
as farming the pasture. For some pastures can be rotated with cereals, summer annu-
that are terminated, you might consider als or even vegetables to interrupt weeds,
planting to winter wheat or oats and winter diseases and problem insects.
peas for a season. These are valuable for-
age crops and they help to break pest cycles
while building soil. Multispecies grazing
Multispecies grazing refers to the practice
High-density grazing systems also diminish of utilizing different livestock species to:
weed invasion by reducing grazing selec-
tivity. As an animal is forced to consume • diversify farm income;
all the plants in a given area, no one plant • utilize pastures of different ecologi-
is favored. This gives grass an advantage. cal types on the farm;
Grass, because of the lowered position of its
growing point when vegetative, tolerates leaf • manipulate the plant community
removal better than broadleaf plants, which to meet the production goals of the
often elevate their growing points much ear- farm; and
lier in the season. Very intensive systems • interrupt parasite life cycles.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 7

8. Figure 1. Plant preferences for grazing livestock successfully used to control kudzu, English
ivy, scotchbroom, Chinese tallowtree, juni-
80 per and mesquite in many parts of the coun-
70 try. Small ruminants can also add value to a
60 farm by providing meat and milk products
percent intake
50 cattle to growing ethnic groups that seek these
40 sheep traditional foods. Refer to the ATTRA pub-
30 goats lication Multispecies Grazing for more
20
information.
10 Using small ruminants on cattle operations
0 will necessitate a change in farm and ranch
grass forbs shrubs
infrastructure. Fencing, lambing sheds and
secure paddocks in areas with predators
Cattle, sheep and goats evolved eating dif- such as wolves, coyotes or bears are often
ferent plant types. Cattle typically consume, necessary, but costs can add up and drain
in order of preference, grasses, forbs and profitability.
shrubs. Sheep will consume, also in order
of preference, forbs, grasses and shrubs and Other methods of maintaining small rumi-
goats will seek shrubs, forbs and grasses. nants on ranches include employing a com-
petent herder who will ensure the sheep or
Sheep have been effectively utilized on goats graze the necessary places and plac-
Western native ranges to control invasive ing guardian animals such as guard dogs,
species such as spotted knapweed, leafy donkeys or llamas with the livestock for
spurge and yellow starthistle. Cattle that predator control.
are grazing in conventional rotations often
remain on Western ranges for weeks at a For more information see ATTRA’s Preda-
time during the summer and are moved tor Control for Sustainable and Organic
when a set stubble height of key grass spe- Livestock Production. Small ruminants
cies like bluebunch wheatgrass or rough are excellent additions to diversified farms
fescue is attained. and ranches because they have the ability
to remove weed problems by shifting plant
When cattle, being primarily grass eaters, succession towards a more complex, bal-
remain in a pasture for long periods of time, anced stage.
they tend to exhibit grazing selectivity and
choose vegetative grasses and young forbs
over knapweed and other noxious weeds.
Pasture renovation and
Ranchers who have allowed a band of 800 establishment
or more sheep to graze for several days When is it appropriate to renovate pas-
before or immediately after the cattle have tures? Renovation often isn’t necessary.
seen significant knapweed usage by the Many farmers and ranchers have noticed
sheep, with moderate grass utilization. See increased productivity and decreased weed
Figure 1 for a comparison of plant prefer- problems merely by working out a high-den-
ences for grazing livestock. sity rotational grazing system. Pastures are
very resilient and, when maintained in the
Applying pressure with diversified live-
vegetative stage for most of the grazing sea-
stock to knapweed, other forbs and grasses
son, ecologically appropriate grasses and
in equal amounts will increase range bio-
forbs often begin to dominate where weeds
diversity significantly over time. Sheep can
and other unpalatable plants once prolifer-
be used as an alternative enterprise by tak-
ated. This happens due to the ecological
ing value from wool, lambs or by contract
principle called succession.
grazing on other parcels to control nox-
ious weeds. Goats have a similar utility in Nature tends toward the stability that comes
areas with shrub infestation and have been with species complexity. Complex systems
Page 8 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

9. occupy all available space both above and amendments with rock powders. Plant
and below ground, and therefore utilize materials should be adapted to the native
nutrients and water more efficiently. Com- soil pH and water-holding characteristics;
plex systems are more resilient from year annual precipitation; temperature; seasonal-
to year, as some species will thrive during ity; and grazing system. This is a good time
wet times and others will proliferate during to incorporate rock phosphate and adjust
dryer times. Simple systems, on the other the soil pH by adding lime according to soil
hand, are less resilient and are prone to dis- test recommendations.
ease and insect attack due to the absence
of diversity. In simple systems, one or two
species prevail and there are fewer niches
for beneficial organisms to occupy. Sim-
ple systems also exploit only a single soil
layer, and therefore many soil nutrients will
remain isolated from the system.
Ecological succession and grazing
management
In nature, ecosystems evolve from simplicity to
complexity. Consider a field that is plowed and
abandoned. Usually the first plants to show
up are annual grasses and forbs, followed by
perennial forbs and grasses. As the years prog-
ress, the grasses begin to occupy more of the
Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS.
space and some shrubs will establish. If left
alone and provided adequate precipitation, No-till grass seeders ensure proper seed placement and result in better germination.
the shrubs will dominate. Trees will show up
next, and woodland will appear at the height Proper seedbed preparation is very impor-
of succession. Managed grazing can hold tant for establishing a productive pasture.
succession to perennial forbs and grasses by There are essentially three ways to plant
maintaining the pasture in the vegetative, or pasture grasses and legumes: planting into
growing, stage.
a prepared seedbed, no-till planting into
the stubble of a prior crop or interseeding
For those fields that have been cropped into an existing stand.
with annuals for the past several decades,
Seed-to-soil contact is of extreme impor-
renovation and reseeding might be appro-
tance when planting by any method. The
priate, especially if high-yielding dairy cattle
S
seed must remain in contact with moist soil
or growing lambs graze them. What follows eed-to-soil
for the first month after germination or the
is a short discussion on pasture renovation. contact is
seedling will whither. There are various
For more information on field renovation
methods for achieving seed-to-soil contact of extreme
and reseeding, including budgets for pas-
while planting. Drilling with a grass drill importance when
ture establishment on a per-acre basis, see
is the most effective, as it allows for bet-
ATTRA’s Converting Cropland to Peren- planting by any
ter control of seed placement. Many times
nial Grassland. method.
packer wheels follow the drill to firm the
seedbed and ensure seed-to-soil contact.
Pasture establishment Broadcasting seed can be effective for some
Establishing a new pasture is a time-consum- species, especially if the soil is packed after
ing and expensive process. Careful atten- planting. Pulling a roller or dragging a har-
tion should be paid to proper plant material row behind a tractor or four-wheeler is an
selection; soil tilth and seedbed prepara- effective tool to increase the germination of
tion; soil fertility and the addition of com- broadcast plantings, especially for ryegrass
post or manures; green manure plow-down; and clover seeds. Other grass seeds such
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 9

10. as timothy, orchardgrass and most warm- timing and the intensity. This means con-
season native grasses do not establish well trolling the number of animals and how
by broadcasting and should be drilled. Be long they are in a pasture.
careful not to plant too deep or the seeds
Rotational grazing systems take full advan-
might not germinate. Follow local Coopera- tage of the benefits of nutrient cycling as
tive Extension Service recommendations for well as the ecological balance that comes
seeding rate and depth. from the relationships between pastures and
Another method of planting new pastures is grazing animals. High-density stocking for
frost seeding. Frost seeding works well in short periods helps build soil organic mat-
areas that experience a freeze-thaw pattern ter and develops highly productive, dense,
in the spring before green-up. Broadcast resilient pastures. For more information see
seeds after snowmelt and allow the natural ATTRA’s Rotational Grazing and Pad-
freeze-thaw action that occurs each day to dock Design, Fencing and Water Sys-
work the seed into the ground. If the tim- tems for Controlled Grazing.
ing is right, this can be an effective way to A rotational grazing management plan need
achieve seed-to-soil contact and incorpo- not be complex. It merely has to direct the
rate legumes into a grass pasture. For the grazing animal to eat when and where you
humid areas of the South or drier areas of want them to in order to keep the plants in
the West, fall-seeding of legumes is more their growing, or vegetative, stage. Rota-
appropriate so that seeds can establish dur- tional grazing allows for more effective for-
ing the winter rainy season. age utilization by increasing herd size on
smaller paddocks for a shorter time, thereby
Rotational grazing and decreasing grazing selectivity and giving the
farmer more control of what and when the
paddock size livestock eat. The basic principles of rota-
If given a choice, livestock will only eat the tional grazing management include:
highest-quality, most palatable plants in a
pasture. In order to ensure that plant bio- • proper timing of grazing correspond-
Paddocks divided by diversity is maintained in the pasture, it is ing to plant physiological stage;
a single electric wire necessary to set up a grazing management • proper intensity of grazing, or dura-
increase options for system to better control livestock grazing. tion on the pasture;
managing pasture
throughout the grazing
The elements of grazing to control are the • residue or plant height after grazing;
season. and
• duration of rest.
Allow the pasture plants to get to sufficient
height prior to turning the cattle onto the
pasture. By waiting until the grass is from
8 to 12 inches high, depending on species,
the roots have become well developed and
the plants can handle defoliation. Grazing
intensity, or duration, can be taken care
of by designing a suitable rotational graz-
ing system. Rotational grazing, as the name
implies, involves moving the cattle peri-
odically from pasture to pasture or pad-
dock to paddock. For instance, a good rule
of thumb is to split a pasture into 10 or
more paddocks with electric wire or elec-
tric tape and stock each paddock heavily
Photo by Linda Coffey, NCAT, taken at Nichols Dairy, Westphalia, KS. for a short amount of time. See Table 2 for
Page 10 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

11. determining the number of paddocks and Table 2. Rest periods for selected plants
paddock size. By doing this you are forcing Cool weather Hot weather
the animals to eat all that’s there, including Species (Days)
weedy plants they might otherwise not eat.
Cool-season grasses 14 35-50
However, before the animals eat the plants
Warm-season grasses 35-40 21
to the ground, move them to the next pas-
ture. This takes into account the third prin- Legumes 21-28 21-28
ciple. It’s important to leave several inches Blanchet et al. ,2003
of grass to allow adequate leaf area for sub- to move according to forage height rather
sequent regrowth. than by the number of days on pasture.
Depending on the species, you will need to Grasses need from 15 to 50 days of rest
leave from 2 to 6 inches of plant stubble at between grazing events to allow adequate
moving time. An 11-paddock rotational graz- regrowth, depending on season, moisture
ing system that allows animals to graze each and plant type. The accompanying chart
pasture for three days will give each pad- shows typical rest times for various pasture
dock 30 days of rest. These figures are for plants, realizing that water and moisture
planning purposes, and it is recommended will have a large effect on plant regrowth.
Calculating paddock size and number
Two questions that will immediately come up for someone contemplating a rotational grazing system are:
• How many paddocks should I have?
• How big should the paddocks be?
The University of Minnesota Extension gives details for calculating paddock numbers in their Grazing Systems Planning Guide
(Blanchet et al., 2003). See the Further resources section for more information. Essentially, answers to these two questions
can be easily acquired by utilizing the following formulas:
To calculate the number of paddocks needed, use the following formula:
Paddock number = Rest period (days)
Grazing period (days) + number of animal groups
Example:
Paddock number = 30 days
2 days + 1 animal group = 16 paddocks
Then, to calculate the size of each paddock in acres, use this formula:
Paddock size = Daily herd forage requirement (pounds) X grazing period (days)
available forage per acre (pounds)
Example:
Considering that growing steers will generally consume around 2.5 percent of their body weight, we will estimate the intake of 100
700-pound steers to be 17.5 pounds per animal per day, times 100 animals equals 1,750 pounds daily herd forage requirement.
If the animals will be in each paddock for two days, and the available forage in the paddock is 2,000 pounds per acre, then,
Paddock size = 1,750 pounds X 2 days/ 2,000 pounds per acre = 1.75 acres
Therefore, for a herd of 100 700-pound steers and grass availability of 2,000 pounds per acre, you would need 16 paddocks of
1.75 acres each, allowing for two days of grazing in each paddock before moving the herd to the next paddock. It is very impor-
tant to realize, however, that 2,000 pounds per acre is not the total productivity of the paddock, but reflects only the amount of
forage the animals will be allowed to consume. A dense orchardgrass-timothy pasture in good condition can produce approxi-
mately 400 pounds of forage for each inch of plant height. So if you plan to begin grazing when the grass is 10 inches tall, and
move the cattle when the grass is 5 inches tall, you should only calculate the 5-inch difference in height in your paddock size
calculations. In our example, 400 pounds per inch times 5 inches equals 2,000 pounds per acre of available forage.
The figures and interpretations in this example are highly variable, and your situation will likely be different from this or any other
grazing plan. This example is intended to familiarize producers with the basics of developing a rotational grazing system.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 11

12. Overgrazing January in the Deep South, and early spring
for parts farther north. Ryegrass establishes
Overgrazing occurs when the grazing pres-
well when broadcasted into perennial sod,
sure exceeds the carrying capacity of the
but small grains typically establish better
pasture. This condition is not really a func-
when drilled into sod.
tion of how many animals are on a pasture,
but how long they remain there. In graz- Brassicas can be spring or summer planted
ing management, time is the most impor- into corn or other annual crops to provide
tant factor to consider in establishing a late summer or fall forage for livestock.
grazing system for sustained forage produc- These crops produce as much as 12,000
tion. Continuous grazing allows livestock to pounds per acre and are well suited to strip-
selectively graze the most palatable plants grazing.
over and over. The problem with this isn’t Warm-season annuals like pearl millet,
necessarily in the selective grazing activity, corn and sorghum-sudan are highly nutri-
but in the fact that the grazed plant does tious and provide quality forage during the
not get the time to regrow before it is grazed summer when cool-season pastures such as
again. New growth is more palatable and orchardgrass, fescue and bromegrass slow
D
contains more nutrients than older growth, down. Summer annuals fit nicely in rota-
ivide
so animals will come back for a second and tional grazing systems. Careful attention to
pastures third bite as long as they are in the pas-
into enough
drought-stressed plants is warranted as these
ture, resulting in the most palatable forages are susceptible to excessive nitrate accumu-
paddocks to ensure being killed out. lation, prussic acid accumulation or a com-
that all plants Divide pastures into enough paddocks to bination of the two and subsequent livestock
have ample time to ensure that all plants have ample time to re- poisoning. Contact your local Cooperative
regrow after grazing. grow after grazing. In addition, for pastures Extension Service office for information on
with adequate water during the growing testing for these compounds.
season, a very high stock density encour- Other species that can be used success-
ages animals to graze the pasture more fully to extend the grazing season are Aus-
uniformly than if the pasture was lightly trian winter pea and forage soybeans. Win-
stocked. In this situation the so-called ter pea, a cool-season legume, is often used
weedy species are being grazed at the same as a cover crop in cereal rotations. Spring
intensity as the so-called good species. grazing of winter pea allows ranchers to
rest more sensitive pastures and graze them
Plant species and when the soil is drier and the vegetation
systems for extending the better established. Forage soybeans like-
wise have a place in summer cropping sys-
grazing season tems where farmers are rotating crops such
Species used to extend the grazing season as corn or grain sorghum with legumes to
include cool-season annual grasses such as build soil organic matter. Grazing these
ryegrass and cereal grains; forage brassi- crops for several months before plowing
cas such as kale, rape and turnips; warm- down the green plants is an added bonus to
season annual grasses such as sorghum- building soil organic matter and tilth.
sudan hybrids, pearl millet and corn; and
Annual forage crops can be an excel-
legumes such as Austrian winter pea (cool-
lent addition to a farm since they extend
season) and forage soybeans (warm-season).
the grazing season several weeks or even
These annual crops can be incorporated in
months. However, annual cropping systems
a perennial pasture by several methods.
often come with environmental costs such as
Annual ryegrass and cereal grains such as erosion, loss of organic matter and destruc-
oats, wheat and rye can be overseeded into tion of soil structure, most notably when
warm-season pastures in the fall. These pas- soils are heavily tilled. Consider rotating
tures will be ready to graze in December to annual crops to different fields each year
Page 12 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

13. to minimize environmental impacts such as
Table 3. Forage species for stockpiling
water or wind erosion.
In the North and West In the South and East
Stockpiling forages Altai Wildrye Bermudagrass
Stockpiling is defined as letting forage grow Orchardgrass Tall Fescue
during summer and deferring grazing to the Reed Canarygrass Reed Canarygrass
fall or winter. This is an effective way of
Timothy
providing winter forage in some areas and
can reduce the need for harvested forage. If Alfalfa
it reduces hay use at all, significant savings
can be realized. This system works well for regions where weathering is less likely to
early winter when spring-calving cows are reduce the nutritional quality and palatabil-
in mid pregnancy. Stockpiled grazing can ity of the hay.
be followed with meadow feeding of high- For more information on grazing season
quality alfalfa hay prior to calving. extension call ATTRA at 1-800-346-9140.
Stockpiling has been shown to work well
given appropriate pasture management Prescribed grazing
and efficient allocation of dormant pasture
during the winter. Many grass species will
on rangeland
maintain a relatively high nutrient content Prescribed grazing can be thought of as a
and palatability for several months after process of developing a grazing system that
dormancy begins. Two extra months of seeks to integrate the economic and ecologi-
grazing can significantly reduce the costs cal realities that ranchers are faced with on
associated with producing and feeding hay. the Western range. The USDA defines pre-
In some cases, producers have been able to scribed grazing as “the controlled harvest
utilize stockpiled forage and eliminate the of vegetation with grazing or browsing ani-
need for hay feeding completely. This usu- mals, managed with the intent to achieve a
ally works better in climates where the dor- specified objective” (USDA, 1997).
mant grass can be preserved longer under Management objectives addressed by pre-
adequate snow cover or because of reduced scribed grazing include:
microbial decomposition caused by low tem-
peratures and limited moisture. • Improve or maintain the health and
vigor of selected plants and main-
Stockpiled forages can be fed by either tain a stable and desired plant
limit-feeding (allowing only so many hours community;
of grazing per day) or by strip-grazing with
a movable electric wire or tape. Another • Provide or maintain food, cover and
option for feeding stockpiled forages is to shelter for animals of concern;
swath them with a hay mower and then • Improve or maintain animal health
rake them into windrows. Cattle can graze and productivity;
directly off the windrow during the winter • Maintain or improve water quality
by using an electric wire or electric tape to and quantity; and
ration hay on a daily basis. This is similar
to strip-grazing in that the wire is moved • Reduce accelerated soil erosion and
each day to expose a predetermined amount maintain or improve soil condition
of forage for grazing. This method, while for susceptibility of the resource
still relying on a tractor to cut and windrow (USDA, 1997).
the hay, reduces the amount of fuel, materi- A very crucial aspect of a prescribed graz-
als and hay equipment needed for bale-and ing regime is the development of a workable
feed-hay by eliminating the baling process and ecologically appropriate grazing man-
altogether. This method works best in dryer agement plan.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 13

14. Developing a grazing following grazing. It will also allow you to
rotate grazing on a seasonal basis. Deter-
management plan on mine how much forage is available in each
rangeland grazing unit and map it out. Note key spe-
Designing an effective grazing plan isn’t cies, percent cover, water availability, facil-
as daunting as it seems. Mostly it is apply- ities and other aspects important to you.
ing observation to management, observing Remember that livestock should always be
some more and then adjusting as needed. within a two-hour walk from water. This will
There are five steps in developing a grazing help you to determine grazing unit size for
plan. They are: large parcels.
1) Create an inventory
Develop a grazing schedule
2) Define goals This will be a graphic illustration of your
3) Determine grazing units plans for grazing each unit during the graz-
ing season. Develop the schedule based on
4) Develop a grazing schedule your total animal units and available ani-
R
5) Develop a monitoring and evaluation mal unit months in each unit. If you have
emember
plan (Montana DNRC, 1999) a 100-acre pasture with two animal unit
that live- months per acre, you have 200 animal unit
stock should
Create an inventory months of forage available. At 50-percent
always be within a allowable use, cut it in half to 100 animal
This is for gathering baseline information unit months. This means you have enough
two-hour walk to allow you to make appropriate decisions forage available to feed 100 animals for
from water. about land and pasture use. Obtain soil one month. Or, said another way, 50 ani-
maps from your Natural Resources Con- mal units for two months, 33 for three
servation Service office and mark appropri- months and so on. For more detailed infor-
ate land forms, soil types and fences and mation on calculating animal unit months,
paddocks. Find out what plants are in each see the Montana Grazingland Animal Unit
pasture and evaluate the pastures based on Month Estimator located at www.mt.nrcs.
a condition score. Utilize features such as usda.gov/technical/ecs/range/technotes/
key species, percent canopy cover, amount rangetechnoteMT32.html
of bare ground, presence of noxious weeds,
annual forage production in pounds per Important concepts here are duration of
acre and amount of residue to determine grazing and time for regrowth. Some range
pasture condition and productivity. ecologists and managers believe that graz-
ing intensity is also important, and it is. A
Define goals plant needs to have green leaves left after
grazing for photosynthesis and subsequent
Make a list of what you want to accomplish. regrowth. However, others feel that graz-
This will be a list of your expectations and ing severity isn’t as important as regrowth
will guide you in making plans and deci- time. Whichever you choose, it is impor-
sions. Do you want to improve the economic tant to remember to allow plenty of time for
value of the ranch? Maintain wildlife habi- adequate regrowth before the animal gets
tat? Improve water quality and quantity? to bite a plant a second time. Take a look at
Reduce noxious weeds? Also consider avail- the native plants on an upland range site if
able acreage and the amount of time you you have the opportunity. Some, like blue-
have to put into this project. bunch wheatgrass and little bluestem, are
large-statured and can handle several bites
Determine grazing units from an animal in one grazing event. Some,
Divide the pastures into units that you can like Sandburg bluegrass, Idaho fescue and
rotate animals through. This will allow you black grama, are smaller and one bite is all
to rest pastures and allow for regrowth it takes to reduce the plant to stubble.
Page 14 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

15. Cattle especially tend to graze severely, so Dealing with the dry years is a real challenge
don’t get too caught up in how much they to livestock operations that rely on water to
take off. Strive for 50-percent use and allow grow the plants and recharge the aquifers
for regrowth. For some sites on dry ranges, and streams that feed the animals. Having a
this will mean one grazing event per year. drought plan is a very important component
For areas with more moisture, you might of a well-thought-out farm or ranch manage-
be able to return every 15 to 30 days for ment plan.
another grazing event.
A drought-management option that deserves
serious consideration is for a producer to
Develop a monitoring maintain livestock numbers at 75 percent of
and evaluation plan carrying capacity for normal years and uti-
This is the most neglected part of range lize the extra forage in wet years for high-
management, and the most important. A value animals such as stockers (Ruechel,
good monitoring system will allow you to 2006). In dry years the pastures will be
check how your management decisions are better able to accommodate current live-
working on the ground. It will allow you to stock numbers. Another option is to slow
determine, for instance, if a particular graz- down rotations during dry years, thereby
ing plan is having the desired effect over allowing more paddock or pasture rest time.
time. A monitoring plan will often involve This option can be effective especially when
a few important evaluation criteria, such as the herd is split between different pastures
plant species composition, percent cover to minimize the impact on drought-stressed
and frequency of species. By comparing plants.
these measurements over time, you can If you must de-stock during drought, con-
start to see trends and can alter and adjust sider which animals should be the first to
your grazing system in order to arrive at go. Do you have low-producing females? Do
your goals. you have older calves that can be sold as
A rangeland monitor-
Recordkeeping is a very important part of stockers? Whichever you do, be sure not to ing photo of a transect in
pasture monitoring. In addition to recording de-stock too late. Pasture that is overstocked southwestern Montana.
the aforementioned physical measurements, and drought-stressed is hard to repair, Photo points such as this
keep track of when livestock enter and leave whereas a cow herd can be bought when help range managers
rains return. evaluate changes in veg-
a pasture; what materials or chemicals are etation due to grazing
used; revegetation or weed control treat- management.
ments; and observations on cattle health
while in the pasture. This information will
be extremely useful in refining your graz-
ing plans.
To obtain more detailed information on
rangeland monitoring contact ATTRA at 1-
800-346-9140.
Managing for drought
Drought is a natural ecosystem process.
The concept of an average or normal pre-
cipitation or temperature is a fabrication
that humans use to try to understand com-
plex systems and attempt to predict behav-
iors and outcomes. Whether in a humid
zone or an arid environment, a producer
Photo by Lee Rinehart, NCAT
will experience relative wet and dry years.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 15

16. Plant toxicity • feeding one-third of the daily dry
Graziers must pay careful attention to the matter requirement as long-stem
negative health effects that certain plants grass hay before grazing lush pas-
can cause in livestock. Plant toxicosis tures that contain greater than 50
occurs either through the ingestion of poi- percent alfalfa or clovers;
sonous plants or forage plants that contain • planting a non-bloating legume like
toxic substances due to environmental or Cicer milkvetch, sainfoin or birds-
physiological conditions. Plant poisoning foot trefoil; and
from water hemlock, nightshade or astraga- • feeding an anti-foaming agent, usu-
lus can be significantly reduced by proper ally composed of fats, oils or syn-
grazing management. These poisonous thetic surfactants.
plants contain resins, alkaloids and organic
acids that render them unpalatable. If the Organic producers should make sure that
pasture contains enough good forage, there they do not feed prohibited materials. Any
is little reason for the animals to select bad- treatments they use or plan to use must
tasting plants. Contact your local Coopera- be listed in their organic system plan and
tive Extension Service office for information approved by the organic certifier before
on poisonous plants in your area. use.
Your local Cooperative Extension Service office Grass tetany
Contact your local Cooperative Extension Service office for information Grass tetany is caused by low blood levels of
on poisonous plants, forage nitrate testing and locally adapted forages. magnesium (Mg). When succulent cool-sea-
The USDA maintains an online database of local Cooperative Extension son grasses are grazed early in the spring,
Service offices on its Web site at www.csrees.usda.gov/Extension/index. the condition can have a rapid onset. Symp-
html. You will also find the phone number for your Cooperative Exten- toms include lack of coordination, stagger-
sion Service office in the county government section of your telephone ing and eventually death. Grass tetany is
directory.
prevented by:
• delaying spring grazing;
The following section illustrates some of the
more common and economically important • feeding a legume hay with spring
environmentally or physiologically caused grass pastures since legumes are
disorders. higher in magnesium than grasses;
• providing a mineral supplement;
Bloat and
Livestock can bloat when they consume veg- • grazing early spring pastures with
etative legume pastures such as clovers and less tetany-prone animal such as
alfalfa. Bloat is a condition manifested by steers, heifers and cows with older
the distention of the rumen, noticed as a calves, since pre- and post-partum
severe protrusion on the animal’s left side cows are most susceptible to grass
caused by fermentation gasses that are not tetany.
able to escape. Legumes are high in pro-
tein and the more immature the plant, Prussic acid
the higher the concentration of proteins it Prussic acid, or hydrocyanic acid, is a toxin
contains. These proteins are very rapidly that occurs in annual grasses such as John-
digestible and produce gas very quickly, songrass, sorghum and sorghum-sudan
faster than the animal can expel. Control is hybrids. When these grasses are stressed
accomplished one of four ways: due to drought or frost, prussic acid lev-
• ensuring the legume component is els accumulate and, if grazed by livestock,
less than 50 percent of the pasture will cause salivation, labored breathing
stand composition; and muscle spasms. Death can occur very
Page 16 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management

17. quickly after consumption. Prussic acid most commonly affected plants are annual
does not persist like nitrates do. Forage grasses such as the cereal grains including
that has been ensiled or harvested as hay oats, wheat and barley; warm-season annual
and dried to a less than 20-percent mois- grasses such as sorghum, pearl millet and
ture content is safe for consumption. Prus- corn; and broadleaf plants such as pigweed,
sic acid poisoning can be prevented by: thistles, goldenrod and lambsquarters. In
contrast to prussic acid, nitrate toxicity in
• testing for prussic acid if conditions
forage does not decrease with time. Nitrate
are right;
poisoning can be prevented by:
• avoiding grazing for a week after the
end of a drought since young plant • testing of suspected plant tissue
tissue after a drought-ending rain prior to feeding;
will be high in prussic acid; • harvesting or grazing suspected for-
• avoiding grazing for a week after a ages several days to a week after the
killing frost; end of a drought;
• considering pearl millet as a warm- • beginning harvest or grazing of sus-
pected forages in the afternoon after
E
season annual forage since pearl
millet does not produce prussic the plants have had several hours of xcess
acid; and sunlight since this helps the plants nitrates can
metabolize nitrates; be deadly
• avoiding turning hungry livestock
into a suspect pasture. • chopping forage and diluting with to livestock and the
clean hay; and most commonly
Testing for prussic acid requires timely
delivery to the lab, as cyanide levels decline • minimizing nitrogen fertilization. affected plants are
after the plant is harvested. Refrigerate but Contact your local Cooperative Extension annual grasses.
do not freeze samples if you cannot get them Service office for information on forage
to the lab right away. If mailing samples to nitrate testing.
the lab, mail them on a Monday to reduce
shipping time. Fescue toxicosis
Contact your local Cooperative Extension Another important condition to consider in
Service office for information on forage the South and Midwest is fescue toxicosis,
prussic acid testing. which is caused by fungi growing symbioti-
cally with the plant. Three distinct ailments
can occur when livestock consume infected
Nitrates tall fescue. Fescue foot results in fever, loss
All plants contain nitrates, which are the of weight, rough hair coat and loss of hooves
precursor to plant proteins. Excess nitrates or tail switch. Bovine fat necrosis is a syn-
will accumulate in the lower stems of some drome characterized by hard fat deposits in
plants when plants are stressed. This can the abdominal cavity. Summer slump is evi-
occur during a drought, heavy rain or long denced by fever, reduced weight gain, intol-
period of cloudy weather. In effect, nitrate erance to heat, nervousness and reduced
accumulation occurs when photosynthe- conception. Fescue toxicosis can be reduced
sis slows down. During this time the plant by:
may not be metabolizing nitrates, but it will
• seeding of legumes to dilute fescue
still be taking nitrates from the soil. The
intake;
result is a backlog of poisonous nitrates in
the plant stems. Concentrations of 1.5 per- • early close grazing of fescue to
cent or more in plant tissue can be toxic reduce seed development;
to livestock, and concentrations of less than • restricting nitrogen fertilization
0.25 percent are considered safe. Excess to the summer when warm-season
nitrates can be deadly to livestock, and the grasses are actively growing; and
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 17

18. • replanting with endophyte-free seed Acknowledgement
or another grass species such as
Special thanks to Melvin George, a range-
orchardgrass.
land management specialist with Univer-
Southern Forages, a book listed in the sity of California Cooperative Extension, for
Further resources section, has an excel- providing technical review and input to this
lent entry on fescue toxicity in its Common publication.
Forage-Livestock Disorders chapter.
Summary References
Blanchet, K., H. Moechnig, and J. DeJong-
When a livestock farmer relies on pasture
Hughes. 2003. Grazing Systems Planning
or rangeland to supply the protein and
energy requirements of livestock, it benefits Guide. St. Paul: University of Minnesota
the farm, the watershed and the community Extension Service.
in significant ways. The management prac- Conservation Commission of the State
tices that foster a more sustainable agricul- of Missouri. 1984. Native Warm-Season
ture system are founded on a management Grasses for Missouri Stockmen.
philosophy that values health in people, ani-
mals, plants and soil. Gerrish, J. 2004. Management-intensive
Grazing: The Grassroots of Grass Farming.
Pasture-based animal agriculture promotes Ridgeland, MS: Green Park Press.
environmental stewardship and community
development through certain key manage- Lindemann, W.C. and C.R. Glover. 2003.
ment practices, including limiting the use of Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes, Guide A-
off-farm inputs such as diesel, fertilizer and 129. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State
purchased feed; and toxic substances such University Extension.
as pesticides. Soil conservation practices,
such as limited tillage and use of peren- Montana DNRC. 1999. Best Management
nial pastures, store carbon in the soil while Practices for Grazing in Montana. Hel-
building soil organic matter. ena, MT: Montana Department of Natural
Resources.
The biological diversity of the pasture is
enhanced through grazing management, Ruechel, J. 2006. Grass-Fed Cattle: How
especially through planned grazing systems to Produce and Market Natural Beef.
that provide adequate rest and regrowth. North Adams, Mass.: Storey Publishing.
Conserving water and energy resources
SRM. No Date. Rangeland Resources of
through irrigation monitoring; solar and
North America. Lakewood, CO: Society for
wind technologies; and biofuel development
can enhance farm sustainability. The selec- Range Management. Article accessed at
tion of adapted plant and animal genetics to www.rangelands.org/publications_
local conditions can enhance the health and brochures.shtml.
resilience of the whole farm community. USDA. 1997. Conservation Practice Stan-
Marketing food to local communities tends dard, Prescribed Grazing, Code 528A.
to reduce the distance food travels from USDA Natural Resources Conservation
farm to plate and provisions the community Service. www.aces.edu/department/
with better, fresher food. Local processing aawm/al528a.pdf#search=’prescribed
plants add value to local animal products %20grazing’
while providing employment and economic
development.
Page 18 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management