Internet filtering and censorship is common in the Middle East and North Africa region. Governments use a variety of methods to control access including laws restricting media, surveillance of internet cafes, and monitoring of online activity. Internet use is growing due to improving infrastructure and a youthful population, but censorship issues continue as governments block content they deem offensive or threatening and imprison bloggers and journalists. Debate over censorship and online freedoms is ongoing as both advocates and opponents seek to challenge or strengthen controls.

1. 2009
Internet Filtering in the
Middle East
and North Africa
Internet in the Middle East and North accessible to Internet users as part of
Africa Qatar’s Supreme Council for Information
Countries in the Middle East and North and Communication Technology’s
Africa continue to invest in information initiative to develop more Web sites with
and communications infrastructure and Arabic content.3
media projects as part of their strategies The number of Internet users is likely
to develop the local economies and create to continue to rise, especially with the
employment. introduction of technologies that
Among the major examples are overcome poor ICT infrastructure that
Jordan’s plans to establish a free IT zone hinders Internet access in the region.
in Amman, which will give sales and WiMAX, for example, was commercially
income tax breaks to the software available by end of March 2009 in Algeria,
companies and business development Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and
firms based in the zone. The zone is part Tunisia, while operators in other parts of
of a strategy designed to increase the the region have started testing the
number of Internet users from 26 percent service.4 Additionally, broadband markets
to 50 percent. It aims to increase are growing fast in Algeria, Egypt, Morocco
employment in the sector and to boost the and Tunisia, and commercial 3G mobile
sector’s revenues from $2.2 billion in services have been launched in Egypt,
2009 to $3 billion by end of 2011.1 Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Syria, and
In addition to existing regional hubs Tunisia.5
Dubai Media City and Dubai Internet City, Demographic factors are also expected
the United Arab Emirates launched a new to contribute to the growth of Internet
content creation zone to support media population. The Arab Media Outlook
content creators in the Middle East and 2008–2012 says that, “Digital media will
North Africa. The new Abu Dhabi-based thrive in the Arab market because the
zone aims to employ Arab media market has a large, technologically
professionals in film, broadcast, digital accomplished demographic group—its
and publishing. CNN, BBC, the Financial youth—who are comfortable with it and will
Times, Thomson Reuters Foundation, and customize it to their own requirements.”
Thomson Foundation are among the The report also revealed that, “over 50%
partners of the zone.2 of the population in Yemen, Oman, Saudi
At the same time, some countries have Arabia, Jordan, Morocco and Egypt are
initiated efforts to develop Arabic Web estimated to be currently less than 25
content. In this regard, Microsoft is years old, while in the rest of the countries
working on translation technology that the under-25, ‘net generation’ makes up
would make the Arabic language more around 35% to 47% of total population.”6
1

2. 2009
Liberalization of telecommunications Internet and Media Regulations: The
markets has already taken place in Debate
several Arab countries. Most incumbent The last few years have witnessed an
telecom companies in North Africa are increase in the debate over media and
already in private hands, with exception of Internet censorship in the region. Rifts
Algerie Telecom, the privatization of which between the censors and local and
has been postponed due to the global regional advocates of freedom of speech
economic crisis.7 However, experts say have intensified, and more voices
telecom liberalization in the Middle East continue to express concern about media
and North Africa still lags behind the rest regulations in the region.
of the world in terms cost and efficiency, a Interestingly, while advocates in the
matter which does not encourage direct region criticize the regimes for the
foreign investment.8 repressive regulations, which limit
freedom of speech online, some
The Media Environment in the Middle governments claim they arrest bloggers
East and North Africa and online activists because they abuse
The Middle East and North Africa is one of what the regimes call “media freedom.” In
the most heavily censored regions in the Egypt for example, the authorities arrested
world. Human rights watchdogs and free a blogger in May 2009 under the
speech advocacy groups continue to accusation of "Exploitation of the
criticize the media restrictions and democratic climate prevailing in the
repressive legal regimes, and over the country to overthrow the regime." The
past few years, a great number of bloggers Cairo-based Arab Network for Human
and cyber-dissidents have been jailed. Rights Information deplored the charges
In April 2009, The International and described them as a black comedy.11
Federation of Journalists called for a Another example of such a rift is from the
radical overhaul of media laws in the Gulf countries, where the head of the
Middle East, stating that the laws in most Doha Centre for Media Freedom criticized
of the region’s countries still permit the Dubai Police for allegedly asking Google to
jailing of journalists for undermining the censor YouTube. The head of the center
reputation of the state, the president, the was later criticized by Qatar officials as
monarch or the religion. Such laws have well as some journalists and was accused
often been used to suppress reporting of of endorsing pornography,12 which is a
corruption or scrutiny of government sensitive topic in many Middle East and
actions.9 This media environment created North African societies.
by authorities has been hostile to bloggers While it is common for Internet groups
and online activism, resulting in a number and online activists in the region to
of arrests across the region. In a list organize online campaigns to condemn
created by the Committee to Protect online censorship and arrests of bloggers
Journalists of the ten worst countries to be and online writers, other online campaigns
a blogger, four such countries (Egypt, which call for and support social
Syria, Tunisia, and Saudi Arabia) were censorship–mostly online pornography–
from the region.10 have emerged in the past few years. For
instance, an Arabic Web site called Ehjeb
(Arabic for the verb "to block") is becoming
increasingly popular, particularly among
users of Web forums. The site offers to
2

3. 2009
facilitate blocking of Web sites by sending and regulations, technical filtering,
user-submitted URLs of questionable physical restrictions, surveillance and
content to the censors in some of the monitoring, and harassments and arrests.
region’s countries. Also, some Internet Among the laws and regulations used to
users in North African countries where control access in the region are the press
there is no social filtering have organized and publication laws, penal codes,
online campaigns to demand filtering of emergency laws, anti-terrorism laws,
sexually explicit content.13 Internet-specific laws, ISPs Terms &
Pro-censorship advocates and anti- Conditions, and telecommunications
censorship activists have also used the decrees.
court system in their attempts to
implement or remove censorship. For Press and Publication Laws, Penal
example, a judge in Egypt filed a lawsuit Codes, Emergency Laws, and Anti-
requesting the banning of 51 Web sites terrorism Bills
considered offensive. The court rejected Many countries in the region use
the lawsuit in December 2007 and restrictive press laws to regulate online
emphasized support for freedom of publishing and traditional journalism. For
expression as long as the Web sites do not example, censorship of online media and
harm local beliefs or public order. In May print journalism in Bahrain is exerted
2009 however, a Cairo court ruled in favor using the 2002 Press Law.14 Kuwait’s
of an Egyptian lawyer and ordered the 2006 Press Law allows imprisonment of
Egyptian government to ban access to journalists for making references to Islam
pornographic Web sites because they are that are deemed insulting,15 or for articles
deemed offensive to the values of religion seen as “against national interests.”16
and society. Oman’s 1984 Press and Publication Law
In Tunisia however, a blogger authorizes the government to censor
challenged the Web filtering regime in the publications deemed politically, culturally,
country by filing a legal suit against the or sexually offensive.17 Syria’s 2001 Press
Tunisian Internet Agency (ATI) for Law sets out sweeping controls over
censoring the social networking site publications printed in Syria.18 And
Facebook after it was briefly blocked in journalists in Tunisia have been
August 2008. The court dismissed the prosecuted by Tunisia’s press code which
case in November 2008 without providing bans offending the president, disturbing
any explanation. These examples and order, and publishing what the
cases illustrate how the fight over access government perceives as false news.19
control is taking different shapes and Yemen’s 1990 Press and Publications Law
forms, and also indicate that different subjects publications and broadcast
players will continue the debate and media to broad prohibitions and harsh
challenge each other. penalties.20 The press law in Morocco has
been used to suppress outspoken online
Access Control in the Middle East writers.21
and North Africa In addition to press codes, some
Access control in the Middle East and countries often use penal codes to
North Africa is multilayered; governments suppress journalists and online writers.
and authorities use different measures to Yemen’s Ministry of Information declared
regulate Internet access and online in April 2008 that the penal code will be
activities. These measures include laws used to prosecute writers who publish on
3

4. 2009
the Internet content that “incites hatred” or religious rituals, opposing the Islamic
or “harms national interests.”22 Syria’s religion, transcending family principles
penal code criminalizes spreading news and values, setting up a Web site for
abroad.23 Though the Bahraini groups promoting programs in breach of
government introduced in May 2008 public decency and order, and setting up a
amendments to the 2002 Press Law that Web site or publishing information for a
eliminate prison sentences for journalists terrorist group under fake names with
and prior censorship on publications, intent to facilitate contacts with their
journalists can still be charged and jailed leadership, or to promote their ideologies
using the penal code and anti-terrorism and finance their activities, or to publish
law.24 information on how to make explosives or
In addition to the use of penal and any other substances to be used in
press codes, two countries–Egypt and terrorist attacks.28
Syria–both of which have been under In January 2008, Saudi Arabia
emergency law for some time, have taken implemented 16 articles of new law on the
advantage of their status to punish use of technology. The law includes
individuals deemed threatening. Egypt’s penalties of ten years in prison and a fine
emergency law, in force since the for Web site operators who advocate or
declaration of the state of emergency in support terrorism; three years and fine for
1981, grants the administrative authority financial fraud or invasion of privacy; and
powers to search, arrest and detain five years and a fine for those guilty of
individuals without the supervision of distributing pornography or other
judicial bodies. Rights groups say that the materials that violate public law, religious
uninterrupted application of the values and social standards of the
emergency law since 1981 has led to the kingdom. Accomplices of the guilty parties
emergence of a parallel legal system and even those who are proven to have
unchecked by ordinary judicial bodies.25 only intended to engage in unlawful IT acts
Similarly, Syria uses the ongoing state of can receive up to half of maximum
emergency (which began in 1963) to punishments.29
arrest media workers and journalists and
political activists risk arrest at any time.26 Terms and Conditions of ISPs
Morocco uses its anti-terrorism bill, Terms and conditions imposed by ISPs are
passed following suicide bombings in also used to control access in some
Casablanca in 2003, to punish journalists. countries. In Oman for example, Internet
The bill grants the government sweeping use is regulated by the ISP Omantel’s
legal power to arrest journalists for Terms & Conditions, which mandate that
publishing content deemed to “disrupt users “not carry out any unlawful activities
public order by intimidation, force, which contradict the social, cultural,
violence, fear or terror.”27 political, religious or economical values of
the Sultanate of Oman or could cause
Internet-Specific Laws harm to any third party” as any abuse and
Few countries in the region have misuse of the Internet Services will “result
introduced Internet-specific laws to in the termination of the subscription
regulate Internet activities; among them and/or in the proceedings of Criminal or
are the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Civil lawsuits against the Customer.”30
Arabia. The UAE’s 2007 federal cyber law Another example is Yemen where the
criminalizes hacking, abusing holy shrines terms and conditions set by the ISP
4

5. 2009
TeleYemen (aka Y.Net) prohibits “sending information, together with any suspicious
any message which is offensive on moral, activities to the police.36
religious, communal, or political grounds.” Similarly, Jordan began in March 2008
TeleYemen reserves the right to control increasing restrictions on the country’s
access to data stored in its system “in any Internet cafés. Cameras were installed in
manner deemed appropriate by Internet cafes to monitor users, and
TeleYemen.” Section 6.3.3 cautions Internet café owners were required to
subscribers that TeleYemen will report register the IP number of the café, the
“any use or attempted use of the Y.Net users’ personal data, the time of use and
service which contravenes any applicable the data of Web sites explored.37
Law of the Republic of Yemen.”31 Additionally, Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of
Interior in April 2009 ordered Internet
Telecommunications Laws cafés to install hidden cameras and
Telecommunications laws are used to provide a record of names and identities
control what ISPs can and cannot host. In of their customers.38 In Kuwait, Internet
Algeria, for example, article 14 of a 1998 café owners also were required to
telecommunications decree makes ISPs maintain a record of customers’ names
responsible for the sites they host, and and IDs, which they must submit to the
requires them to take “all necessary steps Ministry of Communications (MOC) upon
to ensure constant surveillance” of request.39
content to prevent access to “material Some Internet café operators in
contrary to public order and morality.32 Lebanon admit that they use surveillance
Bahrain’s Telecommunications Law of computer software that enables them to
2002 contains penalties for illicit use of monitor the desktops and browsing habits
the network, including the transmission of of their clients under the pretext of
messages that are offensive to public protecting the security of their computer
policy or morals.33 And in Tunisia, the networks or to stop their clients from
1998 post and telecommunications law accessing pornography.40 In March 2008,
enables the authorities to intercept and the Syrian authorities ordered Internet
check the content of email messages.34 café users to provide their names and
Electronic surveillance such as filtering of identification cards and the times they use
email messages of government opponents the Internet café to Internet café owners
has been reported in Tunisia.35 who will subsequently present them to the
authorities.41
Surveillance and Monitoring In October 2007, police in Yemen
Measures to monitor Internet activities, ordered some Internet cafés to close at
particularly in Internet cafés, have been midnight and demanded that users show
introduced in many Arab countries. In their identification cards to the café
Algeria, security forces started raiding operator.42 Some Internet café owners use
Internet cafés and checking browsing surveillance software to monitor the online
history of Internet users after terrorist activities of their customers and refuse
attacks hit the country in April 2007. In access to clients who access
April 2008, the security forces increased pornography.43
their monitoring and surveillance efforts of In August 2008, the Egyptian
Internet cafés and Internet cafés were authorities imposed new monitoring
required to collect names and ID numbers measures by demanding that Internet café
of their customers and report this clients must provide their names, email
5

6. 2009
and phone numbers, before they can use To one degree or another, the Gulf
the Internet. Once the data is provided, countries, as well as Sudan, Tunisia, Gaza,
clients will receive a text message on their and Yemen, censor pornography, nudity,
cell phones and a pin number that they gay and lesbian content, escort and dating
can use to access the Internet.44 services, and sites displaying provocative
In addition to the above measures, attire. Also censored by most of these
some countries impose physical countries are Web sites which present
restrictions on Internet cafés as part of the critical reviews of Islam and/or attempt to
monitoring efforts. For example, Yemen45 convert Muslims to other religions. Some
and Oman46 require that computer of these countries also filter Web sites
screens in Internet cafés must be visible related to alcohol, gambling, and drugs.
to the floor supervisor. No closed rooms or Generally, the countries that implement
curtains that might obstruct view of the political or social filtering also target to
monitors are allowed. various degrees proxies and
circumvention tools to prevent users from
Technical Filtering in the Middle East bypassing filters. Some of these countries
and North Africa also block online translation services and
ONI conducted tests for technical Internet privacy tools apparently because they also
filtering in all of the countries in the can be used to access blocked content.
Middle East and North Africa between
2008 and 2009. Test results prove that Regional Trends in Access Control
the governments and Internet service Internet censorship in the Middle East and
providers (ISPs) censor content deemed North Africa is on the rise, and the scope
politically sensitive; critical of and depth of filtering are increasing.
governments, leaders or ruling families; Previous ONI tests revealed that political
morally offensive; or in violation of public filtering was limited in some countries, but
ethics and order. 2008-2009 results indicate that political
Testing also revealed that political censorship is targeting more content and
filtering continues to be the common is becoming more consistent. For
denominator across the region. Many example, previous tests found that Yemen
states in the Middle East and North Africa temporarily blocked political Web sites in
prevent their citizens from accessing the run-up to the 2006 presidential
political content or have blocked such elections, and Bahrain did the same
content in the past. For example, Bahrain, ahead of parliamentary elections.
Qatar, Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, However, 2008-2009 testing revealed
Syria, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Libya, and that filtering in these two countries has
Tunisia have censored Web sites been consistently extended to include
containing content critical of the several Web sites run by opposition
governments and leaders, Web sites groups or news Web sites and forums
which claim human rights violations, which espouse oppositional political
and/or Web sites of opposition groups. views.
Mauritania has briefly blocked the news In the meantime, countries that have
Web site Taqadoumy, and Egypt has at been filtering political content continue to
some point blocked the Web site of the add more Web sites to their political
Islamic opposition group Muslim blacklists. For example, filtering in Syria
Brotherhood, as well as the Web site of was expanded to include popular sites
the Labor Party’s newspaper. such as YouTube, Facebook, and Amazon,
6

7. 2009
as well as more Web sites affiliated with Department, which announced it would
the Muslim Brotherhood Kurdish exercise immediate supervision and
opposition groups. Another example is censorship.
Tunisia, which added more political and Another example is Saudi Arabia,
oppositional content as well as other which announced in May 2009 plans to
apolitical sites such as the OpenNet enact legislation for newspapers and
Initiative and Global Voices Online. Internet Web sites that will require Saudi-
Social filtering is also increasing and is based Web sites to get official licenses
catching up with the continuously growing from a special agency under the purview
social Web. Most of the Arab countries of the Ministry of Information. Bahrain
were found to have started to block already has a similar system that requires
Arabic-language explicit content that was local Web sites to register with the
previously accessible. Interestingly, Ministry of Information.
filtering of Arabic-language explicit Web Among the new trends in controlling
content in the Middle East and North access is the increase in incidents of
Africa is usually not as fast as that of other hacking of opposition and dissident Web
languages. ONI’s investigation revealed sites and blogs. Such incidents have been
that the US-based commercial filtering reported in Tunisia and Yemen. On the
software used by most of the ISPs in the other hand, sectarian cyber war among
region does not pick up Arabic content as different religious groups in the region,
comprehensively as content in English. namely Shiite and Sunni groups, has
Increases in filtering are the norm in occurred in the past few years. The cyber
the Middle East and North Africa, and attacks managed to deface the Web sites
unblocking is the exception. Of the few of significant Shiite and Sunni
examples of unblocking of Web sites is organizations and individuals and in some
Syria’s restoration of access to Wikipedia cases the attackers managed to remove
Arabic, Morocco’s lifting of a ban on a few the content of some of these sites.
pro-Western Sahara independence Web Additionally, Israeli, Palestinian and
sites, and Libya’s allowing access to some Lebanese Web sites run by Hizbullah have
previously banned political sites. Sudan’s been targets of attacks and hacking,
filtering of gay and lesbian, dating, especially during wars and conflicts.
provocative attire and health-related sites
was also more limited compared to Conclusion
previous test results. Governments in the Middle East and North
Another regional trend is that more Africa continue to invest in media and IT
Arab countries are introducing regulations projects, and at the same time are
to make Web publishing subject to press continuing to invest in censorship
and publication laws and requiring local technologies to prevent their citizens from
Web sites to register with the authorities accessing a wide range of objectionable
before they can go live. In Jordan, for content. Also, while Western companies
example, the country’s Legislation Bureau build ICT infrastructure necessary for
in the Prime Minister’s Office issued in development in the region, other Western
September 2007 a decision that Web companies provide the censors with
sites and electronic press must comply technologies and data used to filter the
with the provisions of the publications and Internet.
publishing law and fall under the oversight The censors in the region attempt to
of the Publications and Publishing control political content using technical
7

8. 2009
filtering, laws and regulations, surveillance NOTES
and monitoring, physical restrictions, and
extra-legal harassment and arrests.
Filtering of content deemed offensive for 1 Mohammad Ghazal, “Jordan, UAE firms in
religious, moral, and cultural reasons is talks over free IT zone,” The National, May
pervasive in many countries and is 16, 2009,
growing. http://www.jordantimes.com/?news=1674
2.
Though many governments 2 Keach Hagey, “Capital launches media zone
acknowledge social filtering, most to nurture young Arab talent,” The National,
continue to disguise their political filtering October 13, 2008,
practices by attempting to confuse users http://www.thenational.ae/article/2008101
with different error messages. 2/BUSINESS/13341341/1119/NEWS.
The absence of technical filtering in 3 Chris V. Panganiban, “Technology to promote
some countries in the region by no means Arabic online,” The Peninsula, April 19,
indicates free online environments in 2009,
those countries; surveillance and http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/Display
monitoring practices and extra-legal _news.asp?section=local_news&month=apr
harassment from security agencies create il2009&file=local_news2009041913642.x
ml.
a climate of fear used to silence online 4 “Has the age of fixed wireless broadband
dissidents. services arrived in the Arab World? By end
Many ISPs block popular politically of March 2009, six Arab countries had
neutral online services such as online eleven commercially launched,” Arab
translation services and privacy tools Advisors Group, April 16, 2009,
fearing that they can be used to bypass http://www.arabadvisors.com/Pressers/pre
the filtering regimes. The censors also sser-160409.htm.
5 “2008 Africa - Telecoms, Mobile and
overblock Web sites and services such as
social networking Web sites and photo Broadband in Northern Region,” ChinaCCM,
and video sharing Web sites because of December 2008,
the potential for content considered http://www.chinaccm.com/4S/4S16/4S16
07/news/20081205/111435.asp.
objectionable. 6 PricewaterhouseCoopers, “Arab media
More users in the Middle East and outlook 2008-2012,”
North Africa are using the Internet for http://www.pwc.com/extweb/pwcpublicatio
political campaigning and social activism; ns.nsf/docid/14D97CB491E2A59B852573
however, states continue to introduce 34000B8AAB.
more restrictive legal, technical and 7 “2008 Africa - Telecoms, Mobile and
monitoring measures, amid growing local Broadband in Northern Region,” ChinaCCM,
and regional calls to ease restrictions and December 2008,
remove barriers to the free flow of http://www.chinaccm.com/4S/4S16/4S16
information. 07/news/20081205/111435.asp.
8 Dana Halawi, “MENA telecoms need
liberalization – Hasbani,” The Daily Star,
Author: Helmi Noman
April 17, 2009,
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edit
ion_id=1&categ_id=3&article_id=101067#.
9 International Federation of Journalists, “IFJ
Demands Overhaul of Repressive Media
Laws in the Middle East,” April 29, 2009,
http://www.ifj.org/en/articles/ifj-demands-
8

9. 2009
overhaul-of-repressive-media-laws-in-the- http://cpj.org/reports/2008/09/tunisia-
middle-east. oppression.php.
10 Committee to Protect Journalists, “10 Worst 20 Yemen News Agency (Saba) Press and
Countries to be a Blogger,” April 30, 2009 Publications Law,
http://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst- http://www.sabanews.net/en/news44000.
countries-to-be-a-blogger.php. htm.
11 “Egypt: new comic crimes written by the 21 “Appeal court overturns blogger’s
state security - Blogger in custody, on conviction,” September 18, 2008, Reporters
charges of exploitation of the democratic Without Borders,
climate,” The Arabic Network for Human http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=
Rights Information, May 14, 2009, 28603.
http://anhri.net/en/reports/2009/pr0514- 22 “Lawzi: Ma Yonshar fi Sahafat Al Internet
2.shtml. Lan Yakon Ba'eedan A'n Al Mosa'ala bimojib
12 “A press row in Qatar -The limits to Qanoon Al Oqobat” [Online journalism is
liberalization,” The Economist, May 14, subject to the penal code: Lawzi, Yemeni
2009, Minister of Information], Saba, February 3,
http://www.economist.com/world/mideast- 2008,
africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13649580 http://www.yemenna.com/vb/showthread.p
. hp?t=9502.
13 “Users’ Initiative to Block Web Sites,” 23 Freedom House, “Map of Press Freedom
OpenNet Initiative Blog, October 24, 2008, 2008,”
http://opennet.net/blog/2008/10/users- http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cf
initiatives-block-web-sites. m?page=251&year=2008.
14 Bahrain Center for Human Rights, “Website 24 “Despite advances, journalists still face
accused of violating press code, BCHR possible jail terms under prevailing laws,
concerned that move is aimed at silencing warns IFJ,” International Federation of
critical voices,” September 2008 Journalists, June 12, 2008,
http://www.bahrainrights.org/en/node/244 http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/9
6. 4435/.
15 “Country Profile: Kuwait,” BBC News, March 25 Sarah Carr, “Journalists Challenge Egypt’s
11, 2009, Exceptional Laws at Seminar,” Daily News
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/co Egypt, August 1, 2008,
untry_profiles/791053.stm. http://dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?Articl
16 Reporters without Borders, “Kuwait— eID=15464.
Annual Report 2007”, 26 Reporters Without Borders, “Syria - Annual
http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article= Report 2007,” http://rsf.org/en-rapport163-
20767. id_rubrique659-Syria.html.
17 United Nations Development Programme, 27 “Background: The State of Human Rights in
“Program on Governance in the Arab Region Morocco,” Human Rights Watch, November
(UNDP-POGAR): Oman,” 2005,
http://www.pogar.org/countries/civil.asp?ci http://hrw.org/reports/2005/morocco1105
d=13. /4.htm.
18 Freedom House, “Map of Press Freedom 28 “UAE cyber crimes law,” Gulf News,
2008,” November 2, 2007,
http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cf http://archive.gulfnews.com/uae/uaessenti
m?page=251&year=2008. als/more_stories/10018507.html.
19 Committee to Protect Journalists, “Tunisia 29 David Westley, “Saudi Tightens Grip on
Report: The Smiling Oppressor,” September Internet Use,” Arabian Business, January
23, 2008, 26, 2008,
9

10. 2009
http://www.arabianbusiness.com/509226- caf%C3%A9s-saudi-must-install-hidden-
saudi-tightens-grip-on-internet-useoni. came.
30 Omantel, “Omantel Terms & Conditions,” 39 U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports
http://www.omantel.net.om/policy/terms.as on Human Rights Practices—2007,”
p. released by the Bureau of Democracy,
31 Y.Net, “Terms and conditions for Y.Net Human Rights, and Labor, March 11, 2008,
Service,” http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/
http://www.y.net.ye/support/rules.htm. 100599.htm.
32 Reporters Without Borders, “Internet Under 40 “Baramij Malomatiya tadbut elaqat al-
Surveillance 2004 - Algeria,” Jumhur bemaqahi al-Internet lima’ aljins
http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article= waltajasos wasirqat albareed aleliqtoroni”
10730. [Information software to control the
33 Telecommunication Regulatory Authority relationship between the public and Internet
(TRA) - Kingdom of Bahrain, “Legislative cafés and to prevent access to sex, spying,
decree no. 48 of 2002 Promulgating the and stealing emails], Dar al-Hayat, June 24,
Telecommunications Law,” 2007,
http://www.tra.org.bh/en/home.asp?dfltlng http://www.daralhayat.com/science_tech/0
=1. 6-2007/Item-20070623-59a6944a-c0a8-
34 “A textbook case in press censorship for the 10ed-0082-a494ca530035/story.html.
past 20 years,” Reporters Without Borders, 41 Khaled Yacoub Oweis, “Syria expands ‘iron
November 5, 2007, censorship’ over Internet,” Reuters, March
http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article= 13, 2008,
24264. http://uk.reuters.com/article/internetNews/
35 “Repression continues as Ben Ali marks idUKL138353620080313?sp=true.
21st anniversary as president,” Reporters 42 “Internet cafes closed after midnight,”
Without Borders, November 7, 2008, Mareb Press, February 20, 2008,
http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article= http://marebpress.net/news_details.php?si
29208. d=10305.
36 Fathiya Borowinah, “al-Jazaer: Ajhizat alamn 43 Moneer Al-Omari , “Search for Pornographic
tolin al-harb ala magahi alinternet liihbat Material on Rise; Children are most
masharee’ khalaya irhabiya naemah” Vulnerable,” Yemen Post, January 12, 2009,
[Algeria: security services declared war on http://www.yemenpost.net/63/Reports/20
Internet cafes to thwart the projects of 084.htm.
terrorist sleeper cells], Al-Riyadh, May 1, 44 “Egypt demanding data from cyber cafés
2007, users: NGO,” AFP, August 9, 2008,
http://www.alriyadh.com/2007/05/01/arti http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hN_tk
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10