1. ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY
School of Graduate Studies
College of Social Science
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies
Program: PhD in Environment and Natural Resource Management
Course: Advanced Research Methods in Geography and Environmental Studies
(GeES-811)
Presentation on Interviews
By: Zewde Alemayehu
Instructor: Abera Uncha (PhD)
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
November 2018
1
2. Introduction
The interview is an important data gathering technique involving verbal communication
between the researcher and the subject.
Interviews are commonly used in survey designs and in exploratory and descriptive
studies.
A research interview involves an interviewer, who coordinates the process of the
conversation and asks questions, and an interviewee, who responds to those questions.
An interview is the most common format of data collection in qualitative research.
They are a systematic way of talking and listening to people and are another way to
collect data from individuals through conversations.
Interviewing is a way to collect data as well as to gain knowledge from individuals.
3. Interviews…
The quality of the data collected in an interview will depend on both the interview design and
on the skill of the interviewer.
For example, a poorly designed interview may include leading questions or questions that are
not understood by the subject.
A poor interviewer may consciously or unconsciously influence the responses that the subject
makes.
In either circumstance, the research findings will be influenced detrimentally.
Interviews are ways for participants to get involved and talk about their views. In addition, the
interviewees are able to discuss their perception and interpretation in regards to a given
situation. It is their expression from their point of view.
4. Interviews…
It is necessary for the researcher to prepare before the actual interview starts.
This is the researcher’s preparation stage. Once the interview is conducted the researcher
needs to make sure that the respondents have:
A clear idea of why they have been asked;
Basic information about the purpose of the interview and the research project of which it is a
part;
Some idea of the probable length of the interview and that you would like to record it
(explaining why);
A clear idea of precisely where and when the interview will take place (Gillham 2000).
5. Interviews…
Also the interview needs to be effective and this is the responsible of the
researcher.
The researcher ought to have the following skills and abilities
An ability to listen;
An ability to be non-judgmental;
A good memory;
An interview guide is also an essential component for conducting interviews. An interview
guide is the list of questions, topics, and issues that the researcher wants to cover during the
interview.
The interview guide should be clear and avoid ambiguity. The researcher ought not ask
personal or illegal questions and be comfortable with silences and wait for the respondent to
speak.
6. Interviews…
WHO suggested six steps to devise an interview guide, which include:
Identify appropriate topics and questions;
Decide on the level of detail;
Draft the questions;
Order the questions;
List any probes or prompts; and
Pilot the questions. Have the informant identify the problems during the pilot.
The interview design and question phrasing will influence the depth and freedom with which a
subject can respond.
Some interviews encourage lengthy and detailed replies while others are designed to elicit short
and specific responses.
The degree of structure imposed on an interview will actually vary along a continuum
7. Types of Interviews
There are many types of interviews, which include:
Structured interviews,
Semi-structured interviews,
Unstructured interviews,
Non-directive interviews
Face-to-face interviews
Telephone interviews
Email or web page interviews
Group interviews
8. Structured or standardized Interviews
In a structured interview, the interviewer asks a set of standard, predetermined questions
about particular topics, in a specific order.
(Corbetta, 2003) states structured interviews are “ interviews in which all respondents are
asked the same questions with the same wording and in the same sequence.” It would be
ideal if questions can be read out in the same tone of voice so that the respondents would not
be influenced by the tone of the interviewer (Gray, 2004).
Bryman (2001 p. 107) explains structured interview entails the administration of an
interview schedule by an interviewer.
9. Structured Interviews…
The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of questioning.
This means that each respondent receives exactly the same interview stimulus as any other.
The goal of this style of interview is to ensure that interviewees’ replies can be aggregated.
Questions are usually very specific and very often the interviewee a fixed range of answers
(this type of question is often called closed, closed ended, pre-coded, or fixed choice).
The respondents need to select their answers from a list of options.
The interviewer may provide clarification on some questions.
Structured Interviews are typically used in surveys
A structured interview is sometimes called a standardized interview.
10. Structured Interviews…
Structured interviews enable the interviewer to ask each respondent the same questions in the
same way.
A tightly structured schedule of questions is used, very much like a questionnaire.
The questions contained in the questionnaire will have been planned in advance, sometimes
with the help of a pilot study to refine the questions.
The questions in a structured interview may be phrased in such a way that a limited range of
responses is elicited. For example:
"Do you think that health services in this area are excellent, good, average or poor?
This is an example of a closed question where the possible answers are defined in advance so
that the respondent is limited to one of the pre-coded responses.
11. Structured Interviews…
It is not unusual for otherwise structured interviews to contain a few open-ended questions.
‘Catch-all’ final questions are common, for example, ‘Do you have anything more to add?’
These questions are useful in helping to capture as much information as possible but they
increase the amount of time required for analyzing the interview findings.
12. Advantages of structured interviews
1. The strengths of structured interviews are that the researcher has control over the topics and
the format of the interview. This is because a detailed interview guide is used. Consequently,
there is a common format, which makes it easier to analyze, code and compare data. In
addition, a detailed interview guide can permit inexperienced researchers to do a structured
interview
2. Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which
are easy to quantify – this means it is easy to test for reliability.
3. Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take
place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in
the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large
population.
13. Advantages of structured interviews…
4. Structured interviews focus on the accuracy of different responses due to which extremely
organized data can be collected. Different respondents have different type of answers to the
same structure of questions – answers obtained can be collectively analyzed.
5. They can be used to get in touch with a large sample of the target population.
6. The interview procedure is made easy due to the standardization offered by structured
interviews.
7. Replication across multiple samples becomes easy due to the same structure of interview.
8. As the scope of detail is already considered while designing the interview, better information
can be obtained and the researcher can analyze the research problem in a comprehensive
manner by asking accurate research questions.
14. Advantages of structured interviews…
9. Since the structure of the interview is fixed, it often generates reliable results and is quick to
execute.
10. The relationship between the researcher and the respondent is not formal due to which the
researcher can clearly understand the margin of error in case the respondent either degrees
to be a part of the survey or is just not interested in providing the right information.
15. Disadvantages of structured interviews
1. Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu
(i.e. during the interview) as an interview schedule must be followed.
2. The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which
generates quantitative data. This means a research will won't know why a person behaves in
a certain way.
3. They adhere too closely to the interview guide and may be the cause of not probing for
relevant information. Also, since there is a set interview guide, the respondents may hear and
interpret or understand the questions in a different manner. The researcher’s verbal comments
and non-verbal cues can cause bias and have an influence upon respondents’ answers
16. Disadvantages of structured interviews…
4. Limited scope of assessment of obtained results.
5. The accuracy of information overpowers the detail of information.
6. Respondents are forced to select from the provided answer options.
7. The researcher is expected to always adhere to the list of decided questions irrespective of
how interesting the conversation is turning out to be with the participants.
17. Semi-structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews are non-standardized and are frequently used in qualitative
analysis.
In this type of interview the order of the questions can be changed depending on the
direction of the interview.
An interview guide is also used, but additional questions can be asked.
In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses a set of predetermined questions and the
respondents answer in their own words (Corbetta, 2003).
Some interviewers use a topic guide that serves as a checklist to ensure that all respondents
provide information on the same topics.
18. Semi-structured Interviews…
The interviewer can probe areas based on the respondent’s answers or ask supplementary
questions for clarification.
The order in which the various topics are dealt with and the wording of the questions are left to
the interviewer’s discretion.
Within each topic, the interviewer is free to conduct the conversation as he thinks fit, to ask the
questions he deems appropriate in the words he considers best, to give explanation and ask for
clarification if the answer is not clear, to prompt the respondent to elucidate further if necessary,
and to establish his own style of conversation.
Additional questions can be asked and some may be questions that have not been anticipated in
the beginning of the interview.
19. Semi-structured Interviews…
The researcher conducting semi-structured interviews is freer one than conducting a structured
interview (Kajornboon, 2004) in which the interviewer does not have to adhere to a detailed
interview guide.
Semi-structured interviews involve a series of open-ended questions based on the topic areas
the researcher wants to cover.
The open-ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but provides
opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail.
If the interviewee has difficulty answering a question or provides only a brief response, the
interviewer can use cues or prompts to encourage the interviewee to consider the question
further.
20. Semi-structured Interviews…
In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer also has the freedom to probe the interviewee
to elaborate on the original response or to follow a line of inquiry introduced by the
interviewee.
Interviewer: "I'd like to hear your thoughts on whether changes in government policy have
changed the work of the doctor in general practice. Has your work changed at all?"
Interviewee: "Absolutely! The workload has increased for a start."
Interviewer: "In what way has it increased?"
In a semi-structured interview, the researcher sets the outline for the topics covered, but the
interviewee’s responses determine the way, in which the interview is directed.
21. Advantages of Semi-structured Interviews
1. Semi-structured interviews are useful when there is a need to collect in-depth information in a
systematic manner from a number of respondents or interviewees (e.g., teachers, community
leaders).
2. Semi-structured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed
depending on the respondents’ answers. The interview can deviate from the interview
schedule.
3. Semi-structured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This
allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the
researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
4. They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for
a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of
the interview etc.
22. Advantages of Semi-structured Interviews
5. Questions of semi-structured interviews are prepared before the scheduled interview which
provides the researcher with time to prepare and analyze the questions.
6. It is flexible to an extent while maintaining the research guidelines.
7. Researchers can express the interview questions in the format they prefer, unlike the
structured interview.
8. Reliable qualitative data can be collected via these interviews.
9. Flexible structure of the interview.
23. Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews
1. It can be time consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative
data (using methods such as thematic analysis).
2. Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as collecting data via
questionnaires. For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include
the ability to establish rapport & knowing when to probe.
3. Participants may question the reliability factor of these interviews due to the flexibility
offered.
4. Comparing two different answers becomes difficult as the guideline for conducting
interviews is not entirely followed. No two questions will have the exact same structure and
the result will be an inability to compare are infer results.
24. Unstructured or in-depth Interviews
Unstructured Interviews Also called as in-depth interviews, unstructured interviews are usually
described as conversations held with a purpose in mind – to gather data about the research
study.
These interviews have the least number of questions as they lean more towards a normal
conversation but with an underlying subject.
This type of interview is non-directed and is a flexible method. It is more casual than the
aforementioned interviews. There is no need to follow a detailed interview guide. Each
interview is different. Interviewees are encouraged to speak openly, frankly and give as much
detail as possible.
Usually the interviewer has received virtually little or no training or coaching about the
interview process and has not prepared much.
25. Unstructured Interviews…
The interviewers ask questions that respondents would be able to express their opinions,
knowledge and share their experience.
The main objective of most researchers using unstructured interviews is to build a bond with
the respondents due to which there are high chances that the respondents will be 100%
truthful with their answers.
There are no guidelines for the researchers to follow and so, they can approach the
participants in any ethical manner to gain as much information as they possibly can for their
research topic.
In an unstructured interview the researcher has to be a good listener and note new or
interesting data the interviewee gives. It “ … requires good communication and facilitation
skills”
26. Unstructured Interviews…
Unstructured interviews (sometimes referred to as "depth" or "in depth" interviews) are so
called because they have very little structure at all.
The interviewer approaches the interview with the aim of discussing a limited number of
topics, sometimes as few as one or two, and frames successive questions according to the
interviewee's previous response. Although only one or two topics are discussed they are covered
in great detail.
Unstructured interviews are exactly what they sound like - interviews where the interviewer
wants to find out about a specific topic but has no structure or preconceived plan or expectation
as to how the interview will proceed.
27. Unstructured Interviews…
Generally, a researcher will try to understand the informants’ worldview in an unstructured
interview.
The relationship between the interviewer and the informant is important. Some characteristics
of depth interviewing are that the researcher has a general purpose and may use a topic guide
but the informant provides most of the structure of the interview. Generally the researcher
follows up on ‘cues’ or leads provided by the informant.
In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has no specific guidelines, restrictions,
predetermined questions, or list of options.
The interviewer asks a few broad questions to engage the respondent in an open, informal,
and spontaneous discussion.
28. Unstructured Interviews…
The interviewer also probes with further questions and/or explores inconsistencies to gather
more in-depth information on the topic.
Unstructured interviews are particularly useful for getting the stories behind respondents’
experiences or when there is little information about a topic.
29. Advantages of Unstructured Interviews
1. The strengths of unstructured interviews are no restrictions are placed on questions. It is
useful when little or no knowledge exists about a topic. So, background data can be
collected. Unstructured interviews are flexible and the researcher can investigate underlying
motives.
2. Due to the informal nature of unstructured interviews – it becomes extremely easy for
researchers to try and develop a friendly rapport with the participants. This leads to gaining
insights in extreme detail without much conscious effort.
3. The participants can clarify all their doubts about the questions and the researcher can take
each opportunity to explain his/her intention for better answers.
4. There are no questions which the researcher has to abide by and this usually increases the
flexibility of the entire research process.
30. Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews
1. As there is no structure to the interview process, researchers take time to execute these
interviews.
2. The absence of a standardized set of questions and guidelines indicates that the reliability of
unstructured interviews is questionable.
3. In many cases, the ethics involved in these interviews are considered borderline upsetting.
4. The drawbacks of unstructured interviews are that they can be inappropriate for
inexperienced interviewers. The interviewers may be bias and ask inappropriate questions.
Also, respondents may talk about irrelevant and inconsequential issues. Consequently, it
may be difficult to code and analyze the data.
31. Non-directive Interviews
The structured and semi-structured interviews are somewhat controlled by the researcher who
has set the issues and questions. In non-directive interviews there are no preset topic to pursue.
Questions are usually not pre-planned. The interviewer listens and does not take the lead. The
interviewer follows what the interviewee has to say. The interviewee leads the conversation.
The interviewer has the objectives of the research in mind and what issues to cover during the
interview. The interviewee is allowed to talk freely about the subject. The interviewer’s role is
to check on unclear points and to rephrase the answer to check for accuracy and understanding
(Gray, 2004 p. 217).
The interviewer does not know which direction the interview will take. Non-directive
interviews have their origin in dynamic psychology and psychotherapy with the objective to
help patients reveal their deep-seated and subconscious feelings (Corbetta, 2002)
32. Advantage of non-directive interviews
The strengths of non-directive interviews are to find the deep-seated problem and the
subconscious feelings.
Disadvantage of non-directive interviews
The drawbacks are that there are no directions or issues to explore which can cause
some problems in coding and analyzing the data.
33. Face-to-face interviews
Face-to-face or personal interviews are very labour intensive, but can be the best way of
collecting high quality data.
Face-to-face interviews are preferable when the subject matter is very sensitive, if the
questions are very complex or if the interview is likely to be lengthy. Interviewing skills are
dealt with in more detail later in this pack.
Compared to other methods of data collection, face-to-face interviewing offers a greater
degree of flexibility.
A skilled interviewer can explain the purpose of the interview and encourage potential
respondents to co-operate; they can also clarify questions, correct misunderstandings, offer
prompts, probe responses and follow up on new ideas in a way that is just not possible with
other methods.
34. Face-to-face interviews…
Personal interviews are one of the most used types of interviews, where the questions are
asked personally directly to the respondent.
For this, a researcher can have a guide online surveys to take note of the answers. A
researcher can design his/her survey in such a way that they take notes of the comments or
points of view that stands out from the interviewee.
35. Advantages of Face-to-face interviews
1. Higher response rate.
2. When the interviewees and respondents are face-to-face, there is a way to adapt the questions
if this is not understood.
3. More complete answers can be obtained if there is doubt on both sides or a particular
information is detected that is remarkable.
4. The researcher has an opportunity to detect and analyze the interviewee’s body language at
the time of asking the questions and taking notes about it.
36. Disadvantages of Face-to-face interviews
1. They are time-consuming and extremely expensive.
2. They can generate distrust on the part of the interviewee, since they may be self-conscious
and not answer truthfully.
3. Contacting the interviewees can be a real headache, either scheduling an appointment in
workplaces or going from house to house and not finding anyone.
37. Telephone interviews
Telephone interviews can be a very effective and economical way of collecting data where
the sample to be contacted are all accessible via the telephone.
They are not an appropriate method of data collection for a very deprived population where
telephone ownership is likely to be low or where respondents may be ex-directory.
However telephone interviewing can be ideally suited to busy professional respondents, such
as general practitioners, when the telephone numbers can be easily identified and timed
appointments set up.
Telephone interviews are also particularly useful when the respondents to be
interviewed are widely geographically distributed.
It is important to note that any findings derived from a telephone survey of the general population
should be interpreted to take account of the non-responders who may not have access to a telephone
or may be unlisted.
38. Advantages of Telephone interviews
1. Telephone interviews enable a researcher to gather information rapidly.
2. Like personal interviews, they allow for some personal contact between the interviewer
and the respondent.
3. To find the interviewees it is enough to have their telephone numbers on hand.
4. They are usually lower cost.
5. Having a personal contact can also clarify doubts, or give more details of the questions.
39. Disadvantage of Telephone interviews
1. Some people may not have telephones.
2. People often dislike the intrusion of a call to their home.
3. Telephone interviews need to be relatively short or people feel imposed upon.
4. Many people don’t have publicly listed telephone numbers.
5. Difficult to incorporate visual aids and prompts and the respondents cannot read
cards or scales. The length of a telephone interview is also limited,
6. Many times researchers observe that people do not answer phone calls because it is an
unknown number for the respondent, or simply already changed their place of
residence and they cannot locate it, which causes a bias in the interview.
7. Researchers also face that they simply do not want to answer and resort to pretexts such as they are
busy to answer, they are sick, they do not have the authority to answer the questions asked, they
have no interest in answering or they are afraid of putting their security at risk.
40. Email or Web Page Interviews
Online research is growing more and more because consumers are migrating to a more virtual
world and it is best for each researcher to adapt to this change.
The increase in people with Internet access has made it popular that interviews via email or
web page stand out among the types of interviews most used today. For this nothing better
than an online survey.
More and more consumers are turning to online shopping, which is why they are a great niche
to be able to carry out an interview that will generate information for the correct decision
making.
41. Email or Web Page Interviews…
Advantages of Email or Web Page Interviews
1. Speed in obtaining data
2. A researcher can use a variety of questions, logics, create graphs and reports
immediately.
Disadvantages of Email or Web Page Interviews
1. The respondents may not check their email regularly
2. Many people have no access to intermate.
3. The respondent may not answer the questions.
42. Group Interviews
This refers to interviews where a dozen or so respondents are interviewed together – also
known as a ‘focus group’. This role of the interviewer is to make sure the group interact with
each other and do not drift off topic.
A researcher must be highly skilled to conduct a group interview. For example, certain skills
may be needed by the interviewer including the ability to establish rapport and knowing when
to probe.
43. Advantages of Group Interviews
1. Group interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the
respondents to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher
develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
2. They also have increased validity because some participants may feel more comfortable being
with others as they are used to talking in groups in real life (i.e. it's more natural).
44. Disadvantages of Group Interviews
1. The researcher must ensure that they keep all the interviewees details confidential and
respect their privacy. This is difficult when using a group interview. For example, the
researcher cannot guarantee that the other people in the group will keep information private.
2. Group interviews are less reliable as they use open questions and may deviate from the
interview schedule making them difficult to repeat.
3. Group interviews may sometimes lack validity as participants may lie to impress the other
group members. They may conform to peer pressure and give false answers.
45. Steps in Conducting an Interview
Before the Interview:
Define your objectives → identify what you want to achieve and the information you need to
gather. Make sure an interview is the appropriate way to meet your objectives.
Choose the type of interview → Review your required information, budget, time, and
potential respondents and decide whether you need to conduct structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured interviews.
Choose the appropriate respondents → Depending on the type of interview, decide on the
characteristics of interviewees and the number of interviews required.
Decide how you will conduct the interviews → Consider telephone or face-to face interviews.
For large surveys, consider computer-aided interviewing and recording.
46. Before the Interview…
Decide how to recruit your respondents → Obtain contact information for a number of
respondents larger than the number of interviews you need, since some may not respond.
Contact them by phone, e-mail, or regular mail and introduce yourself, your organization, and
your project.
Explain the purpose of the interview, the importance of their participation, and set up an
appointment.
Decide how you will record the interviews → Depending on the type of interview, you may
fill in a prepared form, use written notes, voice recorders, or computeraided devices.
47. Before the Interview…
Make a list of questions and test them with a sample of respondents → the questions must be
aligned with the type of interview. If you are running structured interviews, see our Tip Sheets
on “Questionnaire Design” and Survey Research Methods” for more information.
Decide who will conduct the interviews → develop an information kit that includes an
introduction to the research topic and instructions. For unstructured interviews, you may need
to hire skilled interviewers.
48. During the interview
Introduce yourself and initiate a friendly but professional conversation.
Explain the purpose of your project, the importance of their participation, and the expected
duration of the interview.
Be prepared to reschedule the interview if a respondent has a problem with the timing.
Explain the format of the interview.
Tell respondents how the interview will be recorded and how the collected information
will be used → if possible, obtain their written consent to participate.
Ask respondents if they have any questions.
Control your tone of voice and language → remain as neutral as possible when asking
questions or probing on issues.
49. During the interview…
Keep the focus on the topic of inquiry and complete the interview within the agreed time limit.
Ensure proper recording → without distracting the respondent, check your notes and voice
recorder regularly.
Complete the session → make sure all questions were asked, explain again how you will use
the data, thank the respondent, and ask them if they have any questions.
50. After the interview
Make sure the interview was properly recorded → make additional notes, if needed.
Organize your interview responses → responses from unstructured and semi-structured
interviews need to be transcribed. Responses from structured interviews need to be entered into
a data analysis program.
Get ready for data analysis → search for resources for analyzing qualitative and/or quantitative
data.
51. Ethical Issues
In conducting interviews, ethical issues are one of the main concerns. Confidentiality must be
given. Respondents “should not be harmed or damaged in any way by the research.
It is also important that interviews are not used as a devious means of selling something to the
respondent” (Gray, 2004).
If respondents are uneasy and become upset, the interview can be cancelled or postponed. The
following is a list of some of the issues and suggested ethical solutions (Patton, 2000).
Explain purpose: Explain the purpose of the inquiry to the respondent.
Risk assessment: Consider in what ways might the interview put the respondent at risk
in terms of stress, legal liabilities, ostracism or political repercussion.
52. Ethical Issues…
Confidentiality: Reflect on the extent to which promises of confidentiality can be met.
(Confidentiality means you know but will not tell. Anonymity means you do not know, as in a
survey returned anonymously.)
Data access and ownership: Evaluate who has the right to access data and for what purpose.
Mental health: Consider how interviewer and interviewee mental health may be affected by
conducting the interview.
53. Ethical Issues…
Data collection boundaries: How hard will you push for data? What lengths will you go to in
trying to gain access to data you want? What won’t you do?
How hard will you push interviewees to respond to questions about which they show some
discomfort?
When an interview has been completed and is considered a good interview, the respondents
ought to know more about themselves and their situation. However, the researcher must
remember that the purpose of research is to collect data and not to change the respondents or
their opinions (Gray, 2004).
