Conflict Management Assignment Preston University

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Conflict Management
Assignment
Summer 2017
Complete Distance Learning Assignment
Preston University, Karachi

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Table of Contents
Questions......................................................................................................................................... 4
Q1. Explain the ten components of negotiation performance? ....................................................... 5
Answer 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Personality ............................................................................................................................... 5
Approach.................................................................................................................................. 5
Style ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Temperament ........................................................................................................................... 6
Perception ................................................................................................................................ 6
Interest ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Goals ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Needs ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Values ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Power ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Q2 Identify two situations in which avoiding may be an appropriate or effective conflict
strategy? .......................................................................................................................................... 9
Answer 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Situation One – High Tempers / High Emotions................................................................... 10
Situation Two – If it’s not broken, do not fix it;.................................................................... 10
Q3 Identify at least two of your personality characteristics that will assist you in performing
effective negotiations? .................................................................................................................. 11
Answer 3 ................................................................................................................................... 11
Effective Communication:..................................................................................................... 12
Need for Achievement and Creativity:.................................................................................. 12
Q4. What personality characteristics must an action seeker be sure to keep under control? Why?
....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Answer 4 ................................................................................................................................... 13
Q5. What is culture and how appropriate cultural differences affect negotiation?....................... 14
Answer 5 ................................................................................................................................... 14
Communication...................................................................................................................... 14
Style ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Personal Distance................................................................................................................... 14
Cross Culture Negotiation ..................................................................................................... 15

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Q6 What are the major types of interests and goals relevant in negotiation? ............................... 16
Answer 6 ................................................................................................................................... 16
a. Gain Aspirations............................................................................................................. 16
b. Relationship Goals ......................................................................................................... 16
c. I Goals ............................................................................................................................ 16
d. Process Goals ................................................................................................................. 16
Q7 Explain the difference between an individual’s cognitive framework and his or her cognitive
structure?....................................................................................................................................... 18
Answer 7 ................................................................................................................................... 18
Relationship between Cognitive Framework and Cognitive Structure ................................. 19
Q8. Define power and explain the various types of power with examples................................... 20
Answer 8 ................................................................................................................................... 20
Power of Legitimacy.............................................................................................................. 20
Position Power ....................................................................................................................... 20
Expertise Power ..................................................................................................................... 20
Reward Power........................................................................................................................ 21
Coercive Power...................................................................................................................... 21
Referent Power ...................................................................................................................... 21
Situation Power...................................................................................................................... 21
Identification Power............................................................................................................... 22
Time....................................................................................................................................... 22
Popularity Power ................................................................................................................... 22
Persistence Power .................................................................................................................. 22
Patience.................................................................................................................................. 22
Q9. Why is it necessary to determine three position points on each issue to be negotiated? ....... 23
Answer 9 ................................................................................................................................... 23
Q10. Enlist all types of questions and explain the difference between a loaded and a safe
question. Do you examples…. ...................................................................................................... 24
Answer 10 ................................................................................................................................. 24
References in alphabetical order................................................................................................... 26

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Questions
Q1. Explain the ten components of negotiation performance?
Q2 Identify two situations in which avoiding may be an appropriate or effective conflict strategy
Q3 Identify at least two of your personality characteristics that will assist you in performing
effective negotiations
Q4. What personality characteristics must an action seeker be sure to keep under control? Why?
Q5. What is culture and how appropriate cultural differences affect negotiation?
Q6 What are the major types of interests and goals relevant in negotiation?
Q7 Explain the difference between an individual’s cognitive framework and his or her cognitive
structure.
Q8. Define power and explain the various types of power with examples.
Q9. Why is it necessary to determine three position points on each issue to be negotiated?
Q10. Enlist all types of questions and explain the difference between a loaded and a safe
question. Do you examples….

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Q1. Explain the ten components of negotiation performance?
Answer 1
Negotiation is getting what you want from the other person – no matter what. We know how
bargaining works, we ask for a lot and windup setting for something in the middle.
Hence the ten components of negotiating performance include the following;
1. Personality
2. Approach
3. Style
4. Temperament
5. Perception
6. Interest
7. Goals
8. Needs
9. Values and
10. Power
Personality
People interact in negotiation. Successful negotiation depends on an accurate understanding of
other personality types and styles. Knowing yourself is also a pre-requisite for tapping personal
power to maximize effective human interaction. Our emotions, temperament and other aspects of
our personalities given each of us unique needs, interests and perspectives.
Approach
Conflict approach may be constructive or destructive. An avoidant or competitive approach is
often destructive, which results in missed opportunities and frustration of goals. A corporate
example of destructive approach is, accounting department is hostile towards the production
department and vice versa. This situation may arise from disagreements between the two
departmental heads, personal dislikes, a prior misunderstanding etc. This results in late or incorrect
reporting to intentional disruption.
A constructive approach will be a contest amount employee for valuable suggestion to process
improvements. This allows generation of finest ideas; where healthy competition focuses to
improve the organizational effectiveness.
Style
There are four major negotiation styles, they are
1. Avoiding

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2. Competing
3. Compromising
4. Cooperating/Collaborating
An external locus of control may be associated with the avoidance style. Competing and
Compromising are distributive in nature and collaborative is integrative.
Temperament
Temperament affects perceptions, interpretations and certain behaviors. It is possible to recognize
each temperament by paying attention to approach. To find your primary temperament, focus on
the manner in which you take information. Four Key negotiation temperaments are;
1. Harmonizer (Pacifier)
2. Controller (Bull)
3. Pragmatist (Street Fighter)
4. Action Seeker (High Roller)
Perception
Perception is a process of selecting, organizing and interpreting stimuli. Each of us continually
perceives and makes judgement about others. Perception affects our attitudes, beliefs, goals and
decisions. We set goals and take actions by our view of the world, our culture and other learned
expectations, our biases and prejudices, our learning and cognitive styles.
Perception affects not only attitude toward ourselves and others but our goals and decisions as
well. In negotiation, we should expect goals, communication and decision to be affected by
perception and reality.
Interest
When a conflict is presented, external things are typically sought by the parties. Thinking of what
you want and what your counterpart wants will help you succeed in negotiation. These may be to
complete a specific project in a specified timeline, to work half days, to receive a specified amount
of money, to be with a particular person.
Goals
These are the following four types of Goals
a) Gain Aspirations are the tangible and substantive things sought by the parties in a
negotiation process and are also known as G Goals.
b) Relationship Goals describe the nature and value desired for the particular relationship and
the particular person involved.

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c) I Goals help to identify your perspective in a conflict by defining: Who am I and where am
I in this conflict?”
d) Process Goals describe how you want the interaction to proceed, includes the approach, the
style, procedure and voice / participation expected by the parties.
Needs
As human beings we seek psychological consistency and balance, we want things to make sense,
we want our way, this triggers attempts to influence and the need or opportunity to negotiate.
Values
If there is no potential for a mutual beneficial exchange between the parties, then the matter should
not be negotiated. Not everything is negotiable, the key here is to identify personal ethics, moral
code and values.
Power
The power may be real or perceived, but personal power remains the most critical component for
any negotiating. Power may be designated, distributive or integrative.
There are at least twelve specific sources or types of power that arise in negotiation;
1. Legitimacy
2. Position
3. Expertise
4. Reward
5. Coercive
6. Referent
7. Situational
8. Identification
9. Time
10. Popularity
11. Persistence
12. Patience
1. Legitimacy – Formal in nature, power of legitimacy is that power derived from real,
perceived or imagined authority. Television Broadcasts and documentaries are examples
of this power
2. Position Power - is the title or a professional position power, includes position,
professional, certification or degree power.
3. Expertise Power – may be real or apparent expertise about the particular matter under
negotiation.
4. Reward Power – is of varying levels and can relate to emotions or tangible things, from
warm birthday greetings to getting promoted can differ the opinion of the person.
5. Coercive Power - is the power to do something unpleasant or unwanted to other person, it
sis a power that is used in competitive negotiation style.
6. Referent Power- is the charismatic power associated with a brand of product which people
buy do to a certain athlete who uses that particular product.

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7. Situation Power – is understood by the fact that the facts and circumstances faced may on
occasion simply be to your disadvantage.
8. Identification Power – is the power to relate to the other person
9. Time Power – is vital when a deadline is approaching and can create disadvantage.
10. Popularity Power – known as the power of competition or needs. When one is needy the
value decreases in the mind of others.
11. Persistence Power – Quiet but resolved tenacity is a powerful toon in negotiation. A
proposal rejected once is not necessary dead.
12. Patience – is the greatest power of all, it applies throughout the negotiation process.

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Q2 Identify two situations in which avoiding may be an appropriate or
effective conflict strategy?
Answer 2
Knowing the negotiation environment is critical to using the most appropriate strategy called
"Situation Awareness." In most situations there is a choice of negotiation strategies. You will be a
much more effective, creative negotiator if you have a good grasp of the situation and
surroundings. Don't confuse Situation Awareness with negotiation trivia. You've probably been
told that you should, for example, wear a dark suit with a touch of red to emanate power, or sit at
a round table to convey willingness toward teamwork. You may have been told to avoid crossing
your arms because it could be interpreted as being closed to ideas, or to use other body language
to exude self-confidence.
Really understanding a situation means more than what clothes you wear, the shape of the table or
interpretive body language. It means thinking clearly about the relationship or potential
relationship you have to the other party and grasping the relative importance of the outcome (i.e.,
Is it a one time low-stakes negotiated agreement or is it an important transaction with a great deal
at stake for both sides?).
As evident for the grid above Avoidance may be the best choice when, based upon complete
assessment and diagnosis, the effects of any action one might take is likely to produce results no
better than, or harm greater than currently exists.

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Situation One – High Tempers / High Emotions
Avoidance at least on a temporary basis may very well be the best choice when emotions are high
when tempers are too hot, when one is unsure of the appropriate action or when the issue is minor.
However, the problem with avoidance is that by definition, there will be no resolution or
agreement. If for example your boss has said to you that if you say one more word you will be
fired, avoidance may be the appropriate choice.
Situation Two – If it’s not broken, do not fix it;
Avoidance may also be the most effective strategy when the conflict is constructive and there are
no destructive consequences flowing from it. Example, if two work groups have conflict between
them similar to team spirit that causes them to compete with each other in productivity and the
conflict does not rise to the level that it impedes necessary communication, then the conflict is
constructive.
Hence, in using avoidance by the above examples, we derive the following conclusions;
Find no value in addressing conflict. Use this strategy when interests are not aligned or you need
more time to gather information:
 You have little interest in maintaining a relationship or trust building, and
 The outcome holds little value to you, and
 You decide that confrontation is not worth it and would likely end in deadlock or an
unproductive relationship.

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Q3 Identify at least two of your personality characteristics that will assist
you in performing effective negotiations?
Answer 3
Successful/Effective negotiators play the win/win game “masterfully”. They have the necessary
knowledge, experience and skills to navigate the negotiation process with all of its rules, rituals,
strategies and tactics in a way that achieves mutually acceptable results. They also do it in a
manner that enhances the relationship they have with their counterpart.
Win/Win negotiators whose goal is Results with Relationship have learned through experience
that you need more than rules to get results. You need important personal characteristics (key
attributes and traits) that you either come by naturally or that you learn through the “school of
hard knocks”.
The ability to anticipate change and to remain agile is critical to any manager in their profession.
While considering relative exercises of this course I have found that I remain flexible during
most negotiations. The flexibility and adaptability to the unanticipated factors remains a crucial
personality characteristic to any manager. Two of my personality characteristics that assist in
performing effective negotiation are;
Leave little to chance, Negotiation is a dynamic process with numerous moving parts, all of
which are negotiable. They expect the unexpected and prepare accordingly:
 Who am I negotiating with?
 Why are we negotiating?
 Where is the best place for the negotiation to take place?
 What is the timeframe for the negotiation?
 How will I manage the negotiation?
 What are the key issues and outside influencing factors? Do I understand them?
There’s so much more, but this gives you a good idea of the planning involved in a successful
negotiation. Win/Win negotiators know this kind of serious preparation does not guarantee a
winning negotiation – but they also know that without it, they’re heading for certain failure.
Just as improvisational actors prepare a great deal before they act, the more prepared you are
to negotiate, the easier it is to improvise. William Ury
Advantage always goes to the patient negotiator who persistently pursues creative win/win
solutions. Negotiation is a complex process that takes time. Progress usually comes in small
increments. Impatient negotiators who lack persistence often leave potential results on the table
and make costly mistakes. The most successful and effective negotiators are the most creative.
Good solutions eventually come to those with the patience to wait for them, the persistence work
for them and the desire to produce innovative win/win results.

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Effective Communication:
One of my key behavior is listening and expressing my feelings and desires. My attitude towards
conflict is positive hence a collaborative style is much effective in implementing professional
activities in an efficient manner. A strong internal locus of control and a feeling preference are
personality characteristics that serve this style well, which I have verified from the exercises in
this book and during my professional career.
Need for Achievement and Creativity:
Second Key behavior is that I have a high need for achievement, which in turn applies to a
collaborative style which is the best choice particularly in the long term. I try to challenge my
assumptions each day, where I try to explore new ways of doing old things in an easier more
compatible way, while being open and realistic in most of my interactions, which in turn become
very effective during the course of action.
1. Active listening techniques (they suspend judgment and focus on understanding what is
said by their counterpart).
2. Reflective listening techniques (they repeat, summarize or reflect back to their
counterpart what they just heard in question format).
My mistakes, I find, are my best teachers. A negotiator needs to learn. A mistake is only
temporary; the failure to learn is permanent. William Ury
Hence in order, to be a successful/effective (win/win) negotiator, you have to play the game and
play it very well. You must have considerable knowledge about the negotiation process and that
includes its rules, rituals, strategies and tactics. But these alone won’t enable you to play the game
“masterfully”. In win/win negotiations, if you want to be part of the solution and not part of the
problem, you must exercise those characteristics that come to you naturally, but also adopt and
add other key characteristics either through experience or skill development.

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Q4. What personality characteristics must an action seeker be sure to
keep under control? Why?
Answer 4
Action seekers are spontaneous and action-oriented and seek thrills and gratification. They may
allow excitement to take precedence over careful craftsmanship or though out procedural work.
Hence if action seekers go out of control they may either win or lose big.
Action seekers avoid both theory and planning, they are not impatient for resolution. They are
hands-on people. In communication, they often share perception that may sound like but are not
judgements or decisions. The best way to communicate with an Action seeker is to share facts and
figures and to discuss personal interests to tone down the runaway enthusiasm.
Since Action Seekers (HIGH ROLLER) take things literally rather than conceptually. The most
important characteristics that an Action seeker’s can be easily distracted as they do not
thrive on order or completion. Usually action seekers disdain rules and they are unpredictable.
They can be spotted by some hyperactivity.

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Q5. What is culture and how appropriate cultural differences affect
negotiation?
Answer 5
International business deals not only cross borders, they also cross cultures. Culture profoundly
influences how people think, communicate, and behave. It also affects the kinds of transactions
they make and the way they negotiate them. Differences in culture between business executives—
for example, between a Chinese public sector plant manager in Shanghai and a Canadian division
head of a family company in Toronto– can create barriers that impede or completely stymie the
negotiating process.
Since culture consists of all the beliefs, behaviors, and products common to members of a
particular group. Culture shapes the way individuals think, the way they view the world and the
way they interact. Most individuals are unaware of the magnitude to which the dominant culture
in which they were raised affects them.
Communication
Cross culture differences in communication and negotiation are at the forefront of interest today.
Key problems include, semantics, connotation, tone and expectations. As for semantics, beware
some words do not translate between languages. As to connotations beware that words may mean
different things in different languages and in different settings. As to tone, beware in some cultures
personal and informal style is expected, whereas in some more formal style is expected.
Style
Choosing a wrong approach in formal countries can be embarrassing and insulting, however in
some cultures it is customary to have personal social discussion prior to business meetings.
Negotiators from more time oriented cultures (such as Americans) are advised to allow their
counterparts to be less punctual or time focused, they should give the other party time to come to
decision or agreement.
Gift giving, style of dress and the use of alcohol vary among cultures, it is best to inquire ahead of
time and be prepared for all options and follow the examples of your counterparts.
Personal Distance
Individuals spatial boundaries differ among cultures, when in doubt maintain a respectable
distance and refrain from personal contact and let your counterpart take the lead in initial greetings.
Based on research, it is likely that many negotiators from high-contexted cultures, will use an
intuitive approval or exemplify the harmonizer temperament, whereas negotiators from low-
context cultures will use a sensing approach to information and exemplify the pragmatist or action
seeker temperaments.

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Face saving is important in all cultures; however, it may be exemplified differently by culture. In
certain Asian countries offensive or power over negotiation may be perceived a loss of face and
bring an end to negotiation.
Cross Culture Negotiation
It is difficult to track the myriad starting points used by negotiators from different national settings,
especially as cultures are in constant flux, and context influences behavior in multiple ways.
Another complication is that much of the cross-cultural negotiation literature comes from the
organizational area. While it cannot be applied wholesale to the realm of intractable conflicts, Dr.
Nancy Adler compares key indicators of success as reported by negotiators from four national
backgrounds. Her table is being reproduced here, ranking characteristics of negotiators in order of
importance as reported by managers in each national setting:
AMERICAN
NEGOTIATORS
JAPANESE
NEGOTIATORS
CHINESE
(TAIWAN)
NEGOTIATORS
BRAZILIAN
NEGOTIATORS
Preparation and
planning skill
Dedication to job
Persistence and
determination
Preparation and
planning skill
Thinking under
pressure
Perceive and
exploit power
Win respect and
confidence
Thinking under
pressure
Judgment and
intelligence
Win respect and
confidence
Preparation and
planning skill
Judgment and
intelligence
Verbal
expressiveness
Integrity
Product
knowledge
Verbal
expressiveness
Product
knowledge
Demonstrate
listening skill
Interesting
Product
knowledge
Perceive and
exploit power
Broad perspective
Judgment and
intelligence
Perceive and
exploit power
Integrity
Verbal
expressiveness
Competitiveness
Where ever they occur, cultural differences can result in communication failures, unnecessary
conflict and failure to come to agreement. Even as different approaches to negotiation across
national cultures are identified, change is constant. International business culture tends to privilege
Western approaches to negotiation, centered in problem-solving and linear communication, as do
many settings. As Western norms are balanced with Eastern and Southern values, and local
traditions are balanced with regional and national approaches, negotiation practices continue their
global evolution.

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Q6 What are the major types of interests and goals relevant in
negotiation?
Answer 6
There are four types of goals to be identified in every negotiation. These are gain aspirations (G
Goals), relationship goals (R Goals), ego issues (I Goals) and process choices (P Goals). It is
helpful to identify and rank these goals from the perspective of each party in the conflict. Each
goal is defined in details as follows:
a. Gain Aspirations are the tangible and substantive things sought by the parties in a
negotiation process and are also known as G Goals. Complete two projects within the same
time period. To work half days. To get a promotion or a raise. G Goals are the easiest to
identify, however, more often than not, people do not want the same things. At a minimum,
one can anticipate what things individuals will value and rank
b. Relationship Goals describe the nature and value desired for the particular relationship and
the particular person involved. For example, you may desire to build a new friendship or
business relationship or to continue an existing one undamaged. You may desire the other
person. To distinguish R Goals from G Foals, note that staying employed can be a G Goal,
while the nature and quality of the relationship would be the R Goal. You may see from
this example that relationship would be the R Goal. One is likely to find it very difficult
to find the relationship goals both for one own self and for others than to identify G Goals.
Often relationship Goals masquerade as G Goals. The complexities of perception present
difficulties in understanding relationship goals, as well.
c. I Goals help to identify your perspective in a conflict by defining: Who am I and where am
I in this conflict?” these goals can be closely related to the relationship goals. Identifying
your fears will assist you to identify your I goals, what are you afraid of? Do you fear of
looking stupid? Do you fear loosing? Do you feel getting hurt? Another example of I goals
include wanting to be viewed as the peacemaker or problem solver, or wanting to be fair,
or not wanting to be treated as fairly.
I goals tend to make us inflexible and either avoidant or competitive, resulting in
competitive behavior to attack the other’s person – to attack his or her self-esteem. Such
behavior is reactive and will cause a spiral of increasingly negative conflict. In identifying
I goals, the challenge is to control your own ego and use the Igoals of the other toward
constructive ends. It is impertinent to recognize that others need to feel respected and
justified.
d. Process Goals describe how you want the interaction to proceed, includes the approach, the
style, procedure and voice / participation expected by the parties. Selection of the

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appropriate process will be affected by the personalities involved, G Goals, R Goals , I
Goals and the context. The process is important to the interaction in many ways. Process
is sometimes more important than the actual tangible outcome. People are more dissatisfied
by a perceived unfair process than they are with less than optimal results.
The process may accentuate preexisting power differentials or may tend to disperse power and this
in turns generates creativity as well as develops support and agreement. A directive process is
ideally chosen, if one holds ultimate authority along with responsibility for delivering the outcome,
one has ample information and tight timelines.

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Q7 Explain the difference between an individual’s cognitive framework
and his or her cognitive structure?
Answer 7
Perception is a process of selecting, organizing and interpreting stimuli. In perceiving we create
what are called cognitive structures, which can be thought of as mental maps for assigning meaning
to our existence. You may also think of cognitive structures as file drawers for organizing and
maintaining information.
Cognitive structures are the basic mental processes people use to make sense of information. Other
names for cognitive structures include mental structures, mental tools, and patterns of thought.
Reflective Awareness and Visualization Develop Cognitive Structures and Foster Metability
Reflective awareness. Reflective awareness is conscious perception. Reflection is thoughtful
consideration. Awareness is alert attention. To be conscious means to be mindfully attentive of
oneself as a thinking, feeling person. To perceive means to mentally take hold of or consciously

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grasp something while assigning meaning to it. The mind accepts mental representations of
information as fact. Perception is reality for the person doing the perceiving. Perception is filtered
through values, beliefs, and feelings, which color and shape how the information is processed.
Perception can be intuitive and unsystematic, or it can be reflective and logical. Although reflective
awareness is similar to metacognition, it is, more simply, thinking about your thinking.
Perhaps the most important concept to bear in mind in understanding person perception is that we
tend to assume that other cognitive structure is like ours. This is the other general way in which
we attribute psychological processes to other human beings. This tendency can also render errors
in our perception.
Extroversion and introversion may be considered as the framework for an individual’s cognitive
structures.
Relationship between Cognitive Framework and Cognitive Structure
If you think of the cognitive structure as the file drawer, the framework represents the file cabinet.
Our sensing and intuiting preferences also affect those structures.
In perceiving people and things, we seek to develop mental pictures consistent with our cognitive
structures. Therefore, the extrovert and introvert will seek, see and select different stimuli and
organize these stimuli differently. The sensor will seek validity in things that can be verified by
physical senses. The intuited will seed the unusual and creative will see validity in things consistent
with his or her conceptual structures.
You may find the other person having a different picture of the organization than yours. A different
approach exemplifies perceptual differences. Since learning and expectations affect our cognitive
structures, cultural differences can also affect our perceptions.

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Q8. Define power and explain the various types of power with examples.
Answer 8
Identification of powers of legitimacy, expertise, reward, coercion and referent powers are perhaps
the most widely quoted. However, there are six additional types which are situation, identificat ion,
time, popularity, persistence and patience.
Power of Legitimacy
The power of legitimacy is the power derived from real, perceived or imagined authority, being
usually formal in nature. The power comes in several forms.
For example, if someone tells you that his or her preprinted legal contract cannot be amended, you
do not have to accept that. It might be the person making the claim has no authority to amend it,
but its not true that you must sign it as is.
 Typically, people tend not to question the written word that often need to be
challenged.
 Television Broadcasts, particularly news and documentaries, are example of this
power.
Position Power
Business Title or position in an organization, carries a form of legitimacy power often referred to
as position power. This category includes position, professional licensees and certifications, and
degrees of education. It would be disrespectful if you pretend that the Position Power held by the
counterpart does not exist, this sets a negative tone and is non favorable for a win-win result.
One must plan style of communication with the counterpart position and self-perception in mind
so as not to create offense and conflict. One should use the power of legitimacy when it is
advantageous to you and should question the power of legitimacy when it appears to bring a
roadblock to your goals. When it is real you should respect it.
Expertise Power
May be real or apparent expertise about the particular matter under negotiation. Sound preparation
can help you to guard against being subjected to fake expertise power. The exchange of
information between parties creates a bond between the two parties, whereas with-holding
information can intimidate the other side.
The one who has real expertise power is at an advantage. It is nearly impossible to avoid ultimately
deferring to expert information and support.

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Reward Power
Like the former this can also be real or imagined. If one thinks someone can affect you, that person
has power over you. Reward power is of varying levels and can relate to emotions or tangible
things.
Reward power is the authority to promote an individual or an idea or a project. Reward power is
implicit in each negotiation as the negotiation is all about fulfilment of needs on both sides. People
will not negotiate until they know the other side has the
Example if someone knows that it is important to you to be recognized, even with a warm greeting
or birthday card – that person can affect your emotions and therefore, your behaviors by with-
holding that recognition.
Coercive Power
Coercive power is the type of power usually used in a competitive negotiation. It may be the
power to punish or embarrass. If the punishment or embarrassment to which you might be
subjected is unacceptable to you, you should not negotiate with the person who holds such
coercive power. If on the other hand, the repercussion is something within a tolerable range and
one you are willing to risk suffering, then plan the interaction accordingly, one will have to
disregard the coercive power in order to attempt to neutralize it.
Referent Power
The easiest way to understand reference power is the context of negotiation is to relate it to
charisma. It is reference power that sells a great volume of merchandise which people buy
because they subconsciously identify with the famous athlete who wears the brand and they want
to be like him or her.
This type of power is not present in all negotiations; however, do not neglect to look for it. An
example of the existence to referent power may be negotiating a venture capital transaction. You
being the experienced business person intending to fund the venture, the other counterpart might
just want to be like you one day. You can use that power in bringing about mutual gain.
Situation Power
Facts and circumstances faced may on occasion simply be to your disadvantage. In such
situations, there needs to be a plan to alternate a negotiated agreement. Example you become
aware of an error on your tax return, in negotiating with the Federal Revenue Department, you
must recognize that the balance of power in the situation is not to your benefit.

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Identification Power
This is different from referent power, as it is the power to relate to the other person. When one
conveys understanding, empathy and respect, as well as a willingness to create mutual solution,
you create the power of identification, this is the primary forces in persuasion.
Time
Time pressure of a deadline bearing down can present enormous power. If you are the one facing
time pressure, recognize that you are at a disadvantage. Early and extensive planning are the best
antidotes to negative time pressure.
Popularity Power
Popularity Power is sometimes referred to as the power of competition or needs. A good example
is that when one is perceived as needy people will not loan you money as the value possessed in
the minds of people declines. If a bank is one of several from which you may borrow money, that
bank will be anxious to make you a loan.
If you tell someone of an idea and report to them that the other three people you told loved it,
that person will likely near your idea with a receptive mind.
Persistence Power
Quiet but resolved tenacity is a powerful tool in negotiation. A proposal rejected once is not
necessary dead. This power is not continually repeating the same words. It is to resist giving up.
It focuses to finding different ways to explain and support your proposal.
Patience
Patience is often ignored as a power, yet, is the greatest power of all, it applies throughout the
negotiation process. It involves allowing your counterpart to consider proposals and to answer
questions accordingly. It helps to analyze your options and preparing for negotiation.

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Q9. Why is it necessary to determine three position points on each issue
to be negotiated?
Answer 9
Preparation is important with any task; this is also true to negotiation, walking in blind to a
negotiation without planning or analyzing could end the negotiation on a sour note.
Your negotiation strategy is your overall plan for when, how, and in what order you may use
particular techniques and tactics. Negotiation may be understood as evolving in phases –
preparation, introduction, initiation, intensification and closing. The preparation may be pursued
in twenty steps that accomplish the following: identifying issues, gathering information,
determining goals, assessing social or interpersonal aspects, identifying non negotiated
alternatives, setting parameters on each issue, formulating persuasive arguments, formulating
strategy designed for the particular audience, and remaining flexible.
In order to determine overall parameters, three key positions on each issue and component are .
1. One Position will be the best proposal for which you can provide reasonable support. This
position is also likely to be your opening position.
2. The second position to determine is that which represents the best you can reasonably
expect to walk away with, this can be your realistic target.
3. The third position is the worst case scenario that you would accept, this is also known as
your walk away position. This third position is one that you have determined to be worse
than one or more of your non-negotiated alternatives.
No matter how well one prepares there will be additional information gathered once you begin the
meetings. One must remain open and flexible. However, an effective team member can be a great
source of creative alternatives and communication assistance.

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Q10. Enlist all types of questions and explain the difference between a
loaded and a safe question. Do you examples….
Answer 10
Questions are used during each and every stage of a negotiation process. They are helpful to obtain
information as early as possible. The purpose of questions is to know what the counterpart wants,
their agenda. Safe and manageable questions are broad, open-ended, or leading.
A leading question is one that allows you to ask another, thereby leading a follow up. Almost like
a trap I could say-
- "Do you have any plans tonight?"
- "No."
- "Well would you like to grab dinner."
Here you wanted to ask if they wanted to go to dinner but you asked if they were available first.
Making it a leading question.
Cool questions are asking for specific facts, such as mathematical calculations are safe questions.
An example of safe questions is asking for help. Can you please help me in making this drawing?
All of the above given examples are techniques that tend to be constructive and to integrate power.
Asking direct questions is also manageable, such as asking exactly how much something would
cost. Examples:
- What exactly would it cost to purchase a Solar Power Solution for our Head Office
Building?
- What will be the total cost of this land?
- What are the additional charges in this purchase, including any Government duties and
other charges?
A loaded question is one that has more meaning that is directly said. If a parent asked their child-
"Where were you last night?" on paper this is a simple question. In reality it probably has an
assumption behind it that the kid was up to no good. A loaded question asks more than is directly
said, making it "loaded."
A loaded question or complex question fallacy is a question that contains a controversial or
unjustified assumption (e.g., a presumption of guilt). Aside from being an informal fallacy
depending on usage, such questions may be used as a rhetorical tool: the question attempts to limit
direct replies to be those that serve the questioner's agenda.
The traditional example is the question "Have you stopped beating your wife?" Whether the
respondent answers yes or no, they will admit to having a wife and having beaten her at some time
in the past. Thus, these facts are presupposed by the question, and in this case an entrapment,

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because it narrows the respondent to a single answer, and the fallacy of many questions has been
committed.
Hence a loaded question can be viewed as antagonistic and can create conflict. Loaded questions
suggest a preconceived point of view on the other side or put the other person on the spot. For
Example, a question that begins with “Don’t you think….” is probably a loaded question. Loaded
question may be perceived as power over techniques, which are defined in a previous chapter.
They tend to have destructive effects by creating defensiveness. Sometimes hypothetical questions
are useful. A hypothetical question can be effectively used to propose a mutual solution. “If you
do this, then I will do that” is an example of a hypothetical question. When you receive a
hypothetical question, you should evaluate it just as you would a direct offer.

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References in alphabetical order
1. http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/107024/chapters/Cognitive-Structures@-What-
They-Are-and-Why-They-Matter.aspx
2. Conflict Management – Edition 2013-14 by Barbara A. Budjac Corvette
3. https://iveybusinessjournal.com/publication/negotiating-the-top-ten-ways-that-culture-
can-affect-your-negotiation/
4. https://www.situationalcommunication.com/10-winning-characteristics-of-
successfuleffective-winwin-negotiators/
5. https://www.watershedassociates.com/learning-center-item/what-negotiating-strategy-
use.html
6. Ibid., p. 196. Based on the work of Professor John Graham, University of California at
Irvine.
7. Wikipedia - free online encyclopedia

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