The focus is on woven fabric structure.

1. By Degu Melaku 2014
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2. Fabric Manufacturing Technologies
Textile fabrics are generally two dimensional flexible materials made by interlacing of
yarns or inter-meshing of loops with the exception of nonwovens and braids.
• fibre production, yarn manufacturing, fabric manufacturing, and textile chemical processing
• Most of the apparel fabrics are manufactured by weaving technology, though knitting is
catching up fast specially in the sportswear segment.
• Natural fibres in general and cotton fibre in particular are the most popular raw material for
woven fabrics intended for apparel use. Textile fabrics are special materials as they are
generally light-weight, flexible (easy to bend, shear and twist), moldable,
permeable and strong. There are four major technologies of fabric manufacturing as listed
below.
• Weaving
• Knitting
• Non-woven
• Braiding
* Only woven and knitted fabric designs are dimensional and could be represented on paper(Design).
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• Fabric properties of performance and appearance are dependent
on its structure and design.

3. Woven Knitted Nonwoven Braided
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4. Woven fabric Structure
Structure
 The order of interlacement of warp and weft threads at right angles is known as structure of woven fabrics
Foundation of woven cloth structure
• The nature of yarns used.
• The count or relative thickness of the yarns used as warp and weft
• The order of interlacing the ends and picks
• Thread density of a fabric
• Modifications produced by finishing
Loom
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5. Woven structures are classified into the following categories:
(i) Simple structures
(ii) Compound structures
i) simple structures,
only one series of warp and weft threads.
 interlace with one another perpendicularly.
ii) compound structures,
 more than one series threads
one set forms the body or ground and the other forms the figuring or ornamentation.
Unlike the simple structures, the neighboring threads need not be parallel to one another. E.g terry towel
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6. Methods of weave representation
A weave is the interlacing pattern of the warp and weft.
** Two kinds of interlacing are possible:
(i) Warp overlap in which warp is above weft
• When the warp is lifted above the inserted weft, a warp overlap is obtained.
(ii) Weft overlap in which weft is above warp
• When the warp thread is lowered, the weft thread is inserted above the warp thread
and the weft overlap is obtained.
Methods of weave representation:
◦ (i) Linear ◦ (ii) Canvas
 a warp overlap … dot
 weft overlap remains unmarked..
warp overlap, a square is shaded.
Weft overlap, blank square ** commonly used
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7. Design
1. Weave Design
Fabric weave design implies the pattern of interlacement between the warp and weft yarns. The design influences the
aesthetics as well as the properties of the woven fabrics. The design of woven fabrics is manipulated by changing the following
two things.
• Drafting
• Lifting plan
The design is constructed on point paper by using cross (×) and blank. The cross means that the end is passing over the pick.
The blank means the end is passing below the pick.
2. Drafting
Drafting determines the allocation of ends to healds i.e. which end will be controlled by which heald. Generally, drafting is
made in such a way that minimum number of healds is required to produce a particular design. This implies that if the
interlacement pattern of two ends is identical then they should be controlled by the same heald shaft. In case of drafting, a cross
means that the heald is up and a blank means that the heald is down.
Drafting is shown above the weave design.
3. Lifting Plan
Lifting plan shows the position of healds (up or down) for different peaks i.e. which heald or healds will be lifted in which
pick. It is dependent on the design and the drafting.
Lifting plan is shown at the right hand side of weave design.
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8. Basic elements of a Woven Design (ex. 2/2 twill
weave)
1. Design
 vertical ----ends
 horizontal-----picks
 ----------------warp overlap
 --------------- weft overlap
2. Draft
 Vertical--------ends
 horizontal--------Heald shafts
 ---------------end insertion on
shaft
 --------------No insertion of ends
on shaft
3. Peg plan
 vertical ----------Heald shaft
 horizontal---------Pick
 ------------------Lifting of shaft in
pick insertion
 -----------------No lift in shaft
during pick insertion



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X

9. A. Draft Plan
1. Straight Draft
In case of straight draft, a diagonal line is created by the crosses. This implies that, generally, end one is controlled
by heald one, end two is controlled by heald two and so on.
This is the most commonly used draft.
It is the simplest of all the types
the drafting order progresses successively
weave is drawn through the first heald shaft,
the second warp through the second heald frame and so on.
peg or lifting plan is same as the design.
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10. 2. Skip draft
The skip draft is suitable for weaving fabrics having heavy
warp thread density.
 the number of heald frames may be twice or more than
the minimum required for a weave.
 to distribute the warp threads more uniformly so as to
prevent abrasion of the threads due to overcrowding.
**A skip draft is normally employed for weaves such as
plain and twill up to a repeat of 4 and mostly ends of more
than 6000.
3. Pointed draft
This is similar to a straight draft.
 It is suitable for weaves such as pointed twill, diamond weaves and
ordinary
types of honeycombs.
 The straight draft is reversed after half the repeat warp way.
 The number of heald shafts is about half the repeat size of the
weave.
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1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

11. 4. Brocken draft
A broken draft almost resembles the pointed draft.
However the pointed effect is broken. Shifting of
reversing point is the reason.
This type of draft is suitable for weaves such as
herringbone twills.
5. Divided draft
 having two series of warp threads such as terry,
double cloth, warp backed cloth etc.
the two sets of warp threads, say, face and back
warps are divided into two groups.
The first group is for 8 heald shafts and second
for 9-12 heald shafts.
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12. 6. Grouped draft
employed for the production of stripe and check designs
This draft is used for producing the fabric with two different stripes.
 The number of shafts in the draft depends upon the number of stripes and the warp repeat of weave of each stripe.
7. Compound draft
Various methods of drawing in can be combined in one draft for producing a certain type of fabric.
Two or more drafts described above can be applied simultaneously, for example, straight and skip or
sateen,grouped and curved, and so on.
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13. Denting Plan
◦ Warp ends during weaving are spaced out across the width of the warp sheet according to the desired
density by the wires of the reed.
◦ The most frequent order of density is one, two, three, four ends per dent
 The properties of the fabric depend on the fabric
Densities of warp and weft threads, the characteristics (thread thickness, twist, strength,
elongation, etc) of warp and weft threads,
 Characteristics of fiber and the factors introduced during weaving g such as crimp.
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14. Fabrics can be Woven designed by varying
 Types of weave
 Densities of warp and weft threads
 Type of yarn and fibers and so on.
B. Design
Shows the interlacement of warp and weft
Depending on the type of weave
1. Fundamental weaves.
2. Derived and combined weaves
3. Compound structures
4. Jacquard structures
1. Fundamental/Basic weaves
Each kind of the fundamental weave is determined by Repeat of weave [R] and Shift [S] Repeat is indicates the minimum
number of warp and weft threads for a given weave. Warp repeat (Ro) and weft repeat (Ry) Shift is indicates the distance from a
painted square on a thread to its corresponding painted square on its adjacent thread. The shift can be counted in warp way (So)
and in weft way (Sy) (mostly in warp way).
The shift can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction of counting. Counting from the left to right or from low
to high gives positive shift, and the reverse will gives negative shift.
Every warp and weft must have at least one warp or weft overlap with in the repeat [R]. 14

15. 1.1 Plain Weave
a/b= a-warp overlap b-weft overlap(1/1) a+b=R
Plain weave is the simplest and most commonly used type of weave.
It is found in a wide range of fabrics and also it has wide range of application.
Variously known as “calico” or “tabby” weave.
Plain weave is usually denoted by fractions,
The numerator refers to the number of warp overlaps
The denominator refers to the number of weft overlaps
It requires TWO harness, (1/1) Because the weave repeats in every two ends and picks, Weave repeat [R] = 2 and Shift [S] =1
But it requires four, six or more heald shafts when the number of ends/cm becomes large with skip draft.
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16. The plain weave has the following characteristics :
(i) It has the maximum number of binding points
(ii) The threads interlace on alternate order of 1 up and 1 down.
(iii) The thread density is limited
(iv) Cloth thickness and mass per unit area are limited.
(v) It produces a relatively stronger fabric that is obtained by
any other simple weave.
Properties
• simplest of the three basic weaves
• formed by yarns at right angles passing alternately over
and under each other
• least expensive weave to produce
• no technical face or back unless printed
general characteristics:
• tend to wrinkle easily
• less absorbent than other weaves
• raveling less of a problem
• yarn type greatly influences
these characteristics
 producing a comparatively firm and strong texture of cloth. 16

17. 1.2 Twill
a/b= a-warp overlap b-weft overlap(in a repeat) a+b=R
A distinct design for the twill weave is, It can form a diagonal line.
Twill weave is usually denoted by fractions,
The numerator signifies the number of warp overlaps whereas the denominator
refers to the number of weft overlaps within the repeat.
Twill weave can be right-hand or left-hand twill.
In the right-hand twill, the diagonals run towards to the right wherein shift [s] =
+1
In the left hand twill, the diagonals run towards to the left wherein shift [s]= -1
The direction of the diagonal line can aid in recognition of the face of the fabric.
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Twill weaves are named according to the number of harness required to make
the design.
The simplest twill weave is either 1/2 or 2/1 twill,
are called three-leaf twill
3/1 or 1/3 twill are called four-leaf twill.
Twill weaves are classified as balanced or unbalanced,
According to the number of warp and weft yarns are visible on the face of
fabric.
The balanced twill,
e.g. 2/2 shows an equal number of warp and weft yarns in the design.
Other twills are unbalanced, warp or weft face which produces a more obvious
twill line

18. •Durability - This is one of the most prized advantages of twill weave. Its strength and durability make
it ideal for workwear and furniture.
•Great drape - Twill weave drapes beautifully due to the diagonal ribs. This means that many thick
fabrics still hand nicely for garments and they are soft to touch.
•High thread count - This makes the fabric strong and long-lasting.
•Stain-resistant - The diagonal ribs don't attract stains and dirt easily which is why it is commonly
used for workwear.
• Flexible 18
• Warp faced: 2/1, 3/1, 3/ 2
• Weft faced: 1/2, 1/3, 2/3
• Balanced twill: 2/2, 3/ 3, 2/1 / 1/2

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1.3. Satin and Sateen Weaves
a/b= a-ends b-move (regular)
a=R
b=move
Satin and sateen weaves are characterised by the following features:
• Only one binding point in each end and pick within the repeat
• No continuous twill line
• Smooth appearance

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Rules for Making Sateen Weave
1. Move number 1 and (n-1) cannot be used as satin/sateen
weaves are produced.
2. Move number and repeat size of the design should not
have any common factor.
It seems from the point paper design that a Satin fabric will
become Sateen if the fabric is reversed (turned upside down).
However,
practically it is not true. Because, satin fabric is warp faced and
to make the effect of the warp floates more prominent,
following steps are
adopted.
• Use of coarser warp threads than the weft threads
• Use of higher ends per inch (epi) than the (ppi)
Therefore, even if the fabric is reversed, the effect of weft
threads will not be very prominent as the picks are finer and ppi
value is lower.
REGULAR SATEEN AND
SATIN AND IRREGULAR
SATEEN WEAVES
Sateen Weaves
• In pure sateen weaves the surface of the
cloth consists almost entirely of weft floats.
• The parameters of sateen weaves: R ≥ 5; 1 <
S < (R – 1)
• For regular sateen the shift (S) and repeat
(R) must be expressed by prime numbers, it’s
called weft face fabric.
• The sateen weave is denoted by a fraction
and the numerator of this fraction is equal to
the repeat of weave.
• The denominator is equal to the shift (Sy) of
overlaps.

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Satin (Warp Face Fabric)
• Usually constructed using the vertical
shift (Sx).
• Satin has the warp effect, and the
density of warp is much higher than
the density of weft.
Irregular Sateen
• Regular sateen cannot be constructed with a
repeat of four or six threads, because the
repeat and shift cannot be expressed by
mutually prime numbers.
• It is impossible to construct the regular sateen
if R = 6, because among the possible values of
shift found from the formula 1 < S < (R - 1),
i.e. 1 < S < 5, the number 2, 3, 4 have a
common divisor with 6.
• In this case, we cannot choose a constant shift,
but the sateen with a variable shift can be
constructed.
• This sateen is called irregular sateen.
• 4-shaft irregular sateen can be constructed by
using the shifts 1, 2, 3, 2 as shown aside.
• 6-shaft irregular sateen with constructed shifts
2, 3, 4, 4, 3, 2 as shown aside.

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weave Surface
effect
lusture Tearing
strength
Snag
resistance
Wrinkle
resistance
plain flat poor Low Good Poor
twill Diagonal
lines
fair Medium Good Fair
Satin/sateen smooth good High Poor if long
floats
good
Comparison of basic weave properties

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2. Derivatives of Fundamental Weaves
“Constructed by means of deriving from plain, twill and sateen weaves, and retain their structural
features”
2.1. Plain Weave Derivatives ---a/b
Warp Rib Weaves:
Denoted by a
fraction.
The numerator shows
the number of warp
overlapping and the
denominator, the
number of weft
overlapping on the
same thread within
repeat.
Extending the plain
weave vertically.
Weft Rib Weave:
Opposite to warp rep
weave.
Extending the plain
weave horizontally.
Denoted by a fraction.
Sum of the fraction
numerator and
denominator equal to
the warp repeat.
Matt-rib
• known as hopsack or
basket weaves.
 The matt rib structures
result from extending
the plain weave in both
directions.

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• More pliant and stronger than plain weave
• Loose compared to plain weave
• Frays easily
• Flatter than plain weave
• Has comparatively lesser crimp
• Good drape
Comparison of plain derivative to plain

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2.2 Twill Derivatives
• Created by rearranging picks, ends or shifting
 Zigzag or pointed or waved twill weave
 Herringbone twill weave
 Diamond twill weave
 Broken twill weave
 Rearranged or transposed twill weave
 Combined or combination twill weave
Steeped twill weave
Elongated twill weave
Shaded twill weave
Curved twill weave
Twill weave design undergoes several changes in order to avoid the so-
called generic Twill Design and to provide fresh decorative value. The twill
may be altered in a variety of ways

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1. Zigzag/waved/pointed twill weave
•It is the simplest and one of the most
important modifications of twill weave
produced by reversing the direction of twill
at suitable interval.
•A point is selected (usually the last warp is
selected) as the reversing point and so it is
sometime call as point twill.
•In this twill pointed or straight draft is
used.
•This twill is produced by combining S and
Z twist.

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2. Hearing bone twill
This twill is constructed in a different manner from the
ordinary zigzag twill. Though it also depends on reversal
of twill direction.
Here reversal direction occurs after a middle line. Here at
first the basic twill is drowning then the number of central
points is selected in zigzag twill. Rather in extended
second half of basic twill the following matter happened.
•The floating point of first half become down in second
half.
•The down of first half become floating in second half.
In hearing bone twill straight draft is used. There are two
type of hearing bone design-

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6.Broken Twill :
Broken twill is formed by break in the continuation of the twill line at predetermined intervals
This is obtaining by breaking the twill line of a regular twill. It is somewhat similar in appearance
Zigzag twill.
Broken twill can be obtained in different ways. At first basic twill is divided into two section, then the
first section unchanged and the second section is reverse its order, that is to say if the basic twill is
made up of 8 warp threads namely1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 then its broken twill derivatives will obtain the order
1,2,3,48.7,6,5.
Broken draft is used in broken twill

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7. Combined Twill
It is formed by arranging the threads of two continuous regular twill weaves alternately with
each other’s. It is used for producing textures on fabric
#Features:
•Repeat size of two regular twill weaves may be equal or different.
•In combined twill no practically limitations exist and varieties of design can be produced.
•It is capable of producing compact and firm tertures. .
•In case of equal no. of base twill : 6x6, 6x6; or 8x8, 8x8.
•In case of unequal no. of base twill : 4x4, 6x6; or 8x8, 6x6.

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assignment
Construct the following woven structures on a graph paper using different
colors for different group of yarn
1. huck a back weave------- 8x8, 10x8
2. Ordinary honey comb ---R=12x12
3. Ordinary honey comb ---R=12x16
4. Brighten honey comb----R=16x16
5. Mock leno weave --------R=10x10
6. Weft extra figured fabric of G:F(2:1)& ground plain with face 3/3 twill base
diamond structure
7. Warp extra figured fabric of G:F(2:1); ground plain with face 3/3 twill base
diamond structure

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Miscalleneous weaves
• honey comb weave
• Huck a back weave
• Mock leno weave
• crepe weave
• Jacquard weave
Honey comb weave
their name is derived from hexagonal
honey comb cells of wax in which bees
store their honey.
They have ridges and hollows which give
a cell like appearance
Both warp and weft threads float
somewhat on both sides
fabric readily absorbent of moisture.
The weaves are of two classes, namely,
(i) Ordinary honey comb or honey comb
proper
(ii) Brighton honey comb.

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Ordinary honey comb weave
These weaves are characterized by the following
features
(a) Cell like appearance with ridges and hollows
(b) Single line crossing a single line or double line
crossing a double diagonal line
(c) More warp and weft floats
(d) Moisture absorbent due to floats
(e) Constructed with pointed drafts
(f) A reversible fabric having similar effect on
both sides.
Brighten Honey comb
These weaves are characterized by the following features :
(a) Non-reversible cloths in which face appears different from
back
(b) Constructed on straight drafts only
(c) Repeat size is a multiple of 4
(d) Length of longest float is N/2 – 1, where N is the repeat
size
(e) A single diagonal line crosses a double diagonal line
(f) Formation of 4 cells per repeat i.e., two large and two small
cells (ordinary honey comb formsonly one cell per repeat)
(g) The number of threads in a repeat must be a multiple of 4

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A pointed draft is used here

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final design developed by incorporating a floating
motif

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brighten
honeycomb
designs
constructed on
repeat sizes of
16
In the construction of Brighton honey comb weaves
a diamond base is first made by insertion of a
single diagonal and
 then a double diagonal to cross it.
 Suitable motifs as shown in figure above are
inserted inside the spaces of the diagonals.
the length of the longest float in the motif should not exceed (N/2 – 1), where N
is the size of the repeat of the weave.

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 brighten honeycomb designs constructed on repeat sizes
of 20

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Huck a Back
The huck a back weaves are basically toweling fabrics. They are
generally associated with honey comb fabrics and hence known as
honeycomb effects.
They are constructed by alternately combining a floating with a plain weave.
Huck a back weaves are suitable for producing thick and heavy textures.
permits stripe and check effects
They are generally characterized by the following features:
Repeat is divided into four equal parts. Two parts are filled with plain weave and remaining two parts are filled
with long float motif.
 Plain weave gives firmness to the cloth.
 Long float motif gives moisture absorbency.
ideally dobby loom fitted with a fast reed mechanism is used.

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Huck a back weaves are largely employed in the
manufacture of both linen and cotton towels for bath rooms,
and also linen towels for use as glass cloths.

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Mock Leno Weaves
produced in combination with a plain, twill, satin or other
simple weaves or even with brocade figuring, to produce
striped fabrics.
Two kinds of structures are produced by the weaves,
(i) Perforated fabrics which imitate open gauze effects
(ii) Distorted thread effects which imitate spider or net leno
styles.

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3 x 3 imitation 4x4 imitation
The outer threads of adjacent sections tend to be forced apart
The warp threads run in groups with a space between, and are
crossed by weft threads which are grouped together in similar
manner.

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A. Figuring with extra warp
In these fabrics the design is formed by allowing the extra warp threads to
float on a ground structure.
The main advantage of using extra warp in figuring is that it gives higher
productivity.
Jacquard designs in this method are less popular due to the fact that each
different design frequently requires the harness to be retied or otherwise
modified which is costly.
 Figuring with extra warps can be done with one, two or more colours.
Extra-Figuring of Fabrics
• Warp or weft figuring
• extra materials are employed
is that the withdrawal of the
extra threads from the cloth
leaves a complete ground
structure under the figure

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This method can be used in weaving jacquard designs to obtain a width of
repeat that appears to require twice as many needles as are actually necessary,
 The system can also be used to produce a large repeat in dobby weaving. A
typical example of an extra warp design using two colours
The two warps are shown by separate notations ( x and ƒ ). The ratio of the
ground to figuring threads is 1:1.

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The figuring weft is introduced in addition to the ground weft.
The figuring can be done using one, two or more extra weft picks in
addition to the ground cloth produced by the interlacing of the warp
with the ground weft in plain or in some other simple weave order.
The weaving machines used for this purpose must have the capacity
to insert more than one kind of weft.

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1. Width and weight
Weight is an important measure for a fabric plain cloth which is classified
(into light weight, medium weight and heavy weight) based on weight.
• Can be analysed by GSM directly or theoretically from threads
Woven fabric structural parameters
2. Weave(Design)
The way of interlacement of warp and weft in a given fabric; eg. Plain or twill
• can be analysed by ravelling threads and analysing the overlap and underlap

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3. Threads/unit area
• Cover factor of a fabric greatly
depends on count and
threads/cm or in
Cover factor is defined as the factor which
expresses the extent to which
the threads are covered in a fabric.
• ends/unit area and picks/unit area

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4. Yarn crimp (woven fabric)
Can be analysed by ravelling and removing tension then measuring free length; finally,
comparing
With fabric length.

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Knitted Fabric structure and Design
Knitted design
Warp knitted

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• Four primary structures are the base
structures from which all weft knitted
fabrics are derived. They are: Jersey
(or plain) ▪ Rib ▪ Purl, and ▪
Interlock.
• Warp knitting is a type of
knitting methods in which
the yarn zigzags along the
length of the fabric; i.e.,
following adjacent columns,
or wales, of knitting, rather
than a single row, or course.
For comparison, knitting
across the width of the fabric
is called weft knitting.
• Weft knitting is a type of knitting methods
in which the yarn zigzags along the
width of the fabric

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Representations
Diagrammatic
Graphical representation
X----face
0----back

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A. weft knitting design
Plain/single jercey Rib

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Purl Interlock

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B. warp knitting design

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(a) rectangular, (b) square, (c) round, and (d) diamond-
shaped.

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Knitted fabric parameters
1. loop length; length of yarn used in one loop
2. Loop height; the height between first locking loop and second locking incoming loop
3. WPI
4. CPI
5. GSM
6. Tightness factor; the percentage of coverage of knitted area by yarn
course
wale
Loop length

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Comparisons
Warp Knitting Weft Knitting
The loops are produced to the length of
the fabric.
The loops are produced to the width of
the fabric.
It is elastic to the length. It is elastic to the width.
The elasticity of the warp knitted
fabrics is less than weft knitting.
The elasticity of the weft-knitted
fabrics is higher than warp knitting.
Its shrinkage properties are less.
Its shrinkage properties are higher than
warp knitted fabrics.
Here courses are needed for each
pattern row.
Courses are equal to the pattern.
Yarns are supplied from the beam. Yarns are supplied from the cone.
At least one yarn is required for each
needle.
Any number of needles.
Any design is done easily. All types of design are complex.
It is especially suitable for producing
coarse fabric.
It is suitable for producing thin fabric.