Public Administration

1. Public Policy:
History and Context

2. Historical Development of Public Policy
• The history of American politics and policy is
characterized by considerable change.
• The policy history of the United States is
characterized by “policy restraint”.
• The history is divided into four eras:
– A period of divided power,
– An era of state activism,
– An era of national activism, and
– An era of national standards.

3. Historical Development of Public Policy
• Divided power (1787-1870).
– The Constitution placed limits on scope of federal
government, but was still much stronger than the
government under the Articles. Also contained structural
impediments to radical policy.
• Division of powers and separation of powers.
• Policy conflicts tend to turn on jurisdictional questions as much as
policy questions. (Which level of government as important as
what to do).
– Weakness of national government under Articles of
Confederation, Shays’ Rebellion.

4. Shays Rebellion (1786)
Shays Rebels came from diverse socio-economic backgrounds
(wealthiest to the poorest), professions, and locales . Their
grievances extended beyond the economic situation to issues
ranging from rule by a faraway elite, cronyism and corruption in
government, and regressive tax policy.
"I have been greatly abused, have been obliged to do more than
my part in the war, been loaded with class rates, town rates,
province rates, Continental rates and all rates ... been pulled and
hauled by sheriffs, constables and collectors, and had my cattle
sold for less than they were worth ... The great men are going to
get all we have and I think it is time for us to rise and put a stop
to it, and have no more courts, nor sheriffs, nor collectors nor
lawyers.“ A farmer, Plough Jogger

5. • A little rebellion now and then is a good thing. "The tree of
liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of
patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure.“ Jafferson
(President)
• "You talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the
present tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that
influence is to be found, or, if attainable, that it would be a
proper remedy for the disorders. Influence is not government.
Let us have a government by which our lives, liberties, and
properties will be secured, or let us know the worst at once.”
G-Washington (next President)

6. Historical Development of Public Policy
• Divided Power (contd.)
– Powers granted to Congress fell into two categories: management of
national responsibilities (defense) and commercial responsibilities
(interstate commerce).
– Powers broadened by “necessary and proper” clause”.
– In general, however, from the perspective of the average citizen, the
federal government was not the most important official participant in
policy making.
– Reinforced by structure, Founder’s understanding, rural nature of the
population, sparseness and homogeneity, libertarian political
philosophy, absence of industrialization.

7. Historical Development of Public Policy
• State activism (1870 to 1933).
– Industrialization and attendant increases in wealth,
poverty, crime, disease.
– Increased attempts at state regulation, but difficult for
individual states. Interstate commerce suggested federal
intervention, but federal government reluctant.
• Did pass Sherman Anti-Trust Act in 1890. Clayton Act 1914, Pure
Food and Drug Act. Many trust breakups. (Now re-merging).
• Federal government supported laissez-faire economics in its court
and legislative decisions (Lochner vs. New York 1905).
– Integration of former slaves into society 1865 to 1880s.
Declined thereafter (Plessy vs. Ferguson 1896). Turned
control of issue over to states.

8. Historical Development of Public Policy
• National activism (1933-1961).
– Demands triggered by Great Depression.
– Lochner rule influenced Supreme Court actions on
New Deal until 1937.
– New Deal created modern system of national
activism. Further enhanced by federal
government activity during World War II.

9. Historical Development of Public Policy
• National standards (1961 to 1981).
– Great Society.
– Scientific study of public policy impelled by federal
government’s efforts to set standards for states
and localities.
– Retrenchment caused by Vietnam and Watergate
restrictions on President.

10. Historical Development of Public Policy
• The end of big government? (1981-present).
– The election of Ronald Reagan.
– The Reagan Revolution changed the tenor of
American politics and signaled a realignment.
– These eras suggest that the American constitution
without substantial change is flexible enough to
bend, but not break in the face of major policy
upheavals.

11. Elements of American Stability
Type What this means Examples in action
Ideological stability Americans tend not to stray from
a set of ideological precepts
based largely on our national
experience.
No labor party because of some
suspicion of class warfare.
Political stability Politics in the U.S. tends to be
fairly stable for extended periods.
Our constitutional structure has
changed little. 27 amendments.
Policy stability Policies tend to change very little
over time.
The gradual evolution of Social
Security over sixty years.
Stability in power Changes in power do not cause
major policy, political, or social
upheavals.
The transition from one President
or Congress to another is
generally very smooth

12. Policy Restraint and Barriers to Change
• A rationale for stability.
– Deliberation and public participation are at least as
important as rapid and efficient policymaking.
– Rapid policy change can happen with the right
combination of political factors, but during normal periods,
minorities can block policy change and the system
preserves their right to do so.
– Policy does not change rapidly because most of the public
does not support such change except under rare
circumstances.

13. Policy Restraint and Barriers to Change
• Fragmentation.
– Fragmentation is a double-edge sword.
• On the one hand, it requires multiple serial majorities
to promote change.
• On the other hand, it offers multiple points of access to
the policy process.
– Dimensions of fragmentation.
• Separation of powers.
• Division of powers (federalism).

14. Policy Restraint and Barriers to Change
Table 2.2. The Balance of Power
Function Congress President Courts
Legislative Make laws Recommend laws; veto
laws; make regulations
that have the force of
law.
Review laws to
determine legislative
intent, new
interpretations
Executive Override vetoes;
legislative vetoes of
regulations
Enforce and implement
laws.
Review executive acts;
restrain executive
actions.
Judicial Impeach judges and the
president, call witnesses
to hearings, set judicial
jurisdiction.
Pardon criminals,
nominate judges
Interpret laws.
Note: The primary function of each branch is indicated in the boxes with the diagonal lines.

15. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Fundamental Beliefs
– Life The individual's right to life should be
considered inviolable except to protect one's own or
others' lives.
– Liberty The political or personal obligations of
parents or ancestors cannot be legitimately forced
on people

16. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Fundamental Beliefs
– The Pursuit of Happiness Right of citizens to
"pursue"--happiness in their own way, so long as
they do not infringe upon rights of others.
– Common Good individual citizens have the
commitment and motivation--that they accept their
obligation--to promote the welfare of the
community and to work together with other
members for the greater benefit of all.

17. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Fundamental Beliefs
– Justice People should be treated fairly in the
distribution of the benefits and burdens of society,
– Diversity Variety in culture and ethnic background,
race, lifestyle, and belief is not only permissible but
desirable and beneficial in a pluralist society.

18. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Fundamental Beliefs
– Truth Citizens can legitimately demand that truth-telling and
full disclosure by government be the rule,
– Popular Sovereignty The citizenry is collectively the
sovereign of the state and holds ultimate authority over
public officials and their policies.
– Patriotism Virtuous citizens display a devotion to their
country .

19. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Constitutional principles.
– Rule of Law and Judicial Review Both government and the
governed should be subject to the law.
– Separation of Powers Legislative, executive, and judicial
powers should be exercised by different institutions
– Representative Government citizens elect others to
represent their interests.

20. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Constitutional principles.
– Checks and Balances The powers given to the different
branches of government should be roughly equal, so that
no branch can completely dominate the others.
– Individual Rights individuals have certain basic rights that
are not created by government but which government
should protect. Many of these rights are enumerated in
the Bill of Rights.

21. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Constitutional Principles
– Limited Government The powers of government may not
be used to restrict fundamental freedoms including life,
liberty, and property.
– Freedom of Religion There shall be full freedom of
conscience for people of all faiths or none. Religious liberty
includes the right to freely practice any religion or no
religion without governmental coercion or control.

22. Core Values and Beliefs in American System
• Constitutional Principles
– Federalism Power is shared between two
governmental institutions, states and federal
authorities
– Civilian Control of the Military Civilian authority
should control the military in order to preserve
constitutional government.

23. ENVIRONMENT

24. Environment Complexity
• Social Complexity: diverse interests of actors,
values. Behavioral complexity
• Dynamic Complexity. Interdependence of
components of a system. Cause –effect. And
its Impact
• Emerging complexity; caused by disruptive
changes. Problems with unknown solution-
UNCERTINITY
All these exist in parallel in public policy

25. 25
THE POLITICAL SYSTEM
(“BLACK BOX”)
translates inputs into
outputs
The Policy Environment
Feedback
Outputs:
• Laws
• Regulations
• Decisions
Inputs:
• Election results
• Public opinion
• Communications to elected
officials
• Media coverage
• Personal experiences

26. Elements of the systems model
• The environment influences the system
• The inputs: public demands for policies
• The outputs: policies
• The political system: the black box
– How does this black box work?
– This is the essential question of policy studies
• Feedback influences the system
• Boundaries between elements are blurry
26

27. The Structural Environment
• Separation of Powers
• Federalism
• Rules for governance
– Pakistan Protection Act
– Military and Anti Terrorist Courts
– The Freedom of Information Act
– National Action Plan
27

28. THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
1. Growing Population
2. Youth Bulge
3. Afghan and other refugees
4. Child Labor/school dropouts
5. Illiteracy
6. Extremism/ Tolerance
7. Working Women
8. ?????

29. Political Environments
• The economy clearly dominates
• Some issues ebb and flow
– Defense
– Terrorism
– Poverty
– Crime
– Energy
– Health
• Do other issues “deserve” attention that they do
not get?
29

30. National Mood
• Measuring the “national mood”
• How would you characterize today’s national
mood?
– Many people are alienated from politics
– Many people disapprove of public institutions
• Approval of the legislative and executive branches
mirrors each other
• Govt approval usually declines
• The result: shifts in relative influence
30

31. Economic Environment
• Economic growth is a main national goal
• Unemployment
• Poverty
• Income Gap
• There are major debates over how to promote
economic growth
• Notions of stimulus are often controversial
– Spending and growth….
– Deficits and debt
31

32. Economic Environment; wealth
• The wealthiest population has become more
wealthy
• All other lost their share of national income
– This yields debates over wealth distribution
– Example: Indirect tax like Electricity, withholding etc
• High income inequality
– Too much inequality can hurt the economy
– Inequality yields questions about fairness
– Inequality can yield political action aimed at reducing
inequality
32

33. SYSTEM INPUTS
33

34. Elections
• Election can change policy agendas and
priorities
• Do election results constitute mandates?
• How do we know what policy preferences are
signaled by election results?
• Referenda are clearer statements of
preferences

35. Public opinion
• Measuring it: polling
– Polls are usually reliable
– Polls are about elections and about issues
• Polls often ask questions about major issues
of the day
• Polls are not the only input into decision-
making
• Polls help people clarify their message

36. Communications to officials
• How do we communicate with public
servants?
– Letters, e-mails, faxes, Telephone calls, meetings
• Is every communication with officials weighed
equally? Carefully?
36

37. News media
• Highlight issues
• Frame of the stories around issues
• Provide avenues of communication for
officials
– Trial balloons
– Strategic leaks
37

38. Interest group activity
• Mobilize communications to decision-makers
• Amplify individual voices in policymaking
• Constitute an important input to decision-
makers
38

39. Laws
• Types of law
– Statute law
– Case law
• Regulations
– Have the force of law
– Are often highly technical
– Are published in the Official Gazette
39

40. Oversight and evaluation
• Oversight: ensuring that programs follow
legislative intent
• Methods
– Reports from the Parliamentarians, Research
organizations, Auditor General
– Oversight hearings in Parliament
• Policy evaluation
– Through formal studies conducted by government
– Through formal studies conducted by consultants and
academics

41. Summary
• We can think of the policy process as a system
• Systems are influenced by, and influence, their
environments
• Systems are characterized by inputs and outputs
• The systems and stages models are not perfect
models
– But they help simplify a complex world
– Our world is as complex in its own way as the world
was decades ago