This document discusses various leadership skills and human resource development. It covers the importance of training employees and developing their skills. It emphasizes that developing existing employees is a cost-effective way for companies to fill roles. The document also discusses the knowledge and qualities needed to be an effective leader, including communication skills, ability to motivate teams, and learning from others. It highlights transformational leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Steve Jobs as examples.
2. HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
Knowledge
1
Introduction
Training and development involves improving the knowledge
and skills of the employees.
Employees appreciate the acquisition of new skills which enable
them to engage in more challenging roles in the company.
Providing ongoing training opportunities for the employees
within the human resource division shows a company
commitment to the growth of the employees.
Ongoing education of the employees can cost very little in costs
unlike other activities in the company.
3. One of the ways to staff a company’s roles is to develop the
talents of the employees.
In order to maintain a competitive edge in the marketplace, your
company must invest in the training and development of your
employees. Human Resources Development (HRD) focuses on
both training employees for their current jobs and developing
skills for their future roles and responsibilities.
2
Importance of human development within the human resource
department
It provide a cheaper way to staff the roles in the company
through development of talents.
Encourages the development of a teaching and learning culture
in the company.
Encourages the employees to collaborate and interact with their
peers in the organization.
The development of human resource enriches the company’s
knowledge base.
It is easier for the company to fill a vacant and bring the
employee to speed when they hire internally.
Human resource development enable the company to source
skills within the organization.
HRD activities include: training for managers, supervisors, and
teams; tuition reimbursement programs; customer service
training; performance management; harassment prevention
training; 360 degree reviews (multi-rater feedback system); and
career coaching.
3
4. Knowledge that I posses that will help me in my future career as
a leader
I know my areas of weakness and therefore it ,will easier to
work on how to overcome them as a leader.
Knowing you’re the areas that you are weak at does not make
you weak but rather enable you to assign those roles to those
who have the ability to perform them.
One way to improve your areas of weakness is by working on
them and the first step to do so is identifying those areas.
I have a good level of honest that will enable me to
communicate effectively with my peers as a leader.
How understand how other people perceive me by simply
observing their behaviors.
One of the greatest ways to study is to learn from peers and
managers. Unfortunately, that is also the most complicated
learning method to establish throughout the company. However,
it is not enough to engage a training consultant to provide a
couple of one-off courses. We are talking about every day on-
the-job learning.
4
Knowledge that I poses that will help me as a leader in my
future career
I know that in order to effectively the needs of my team have to
be perceptive.
I understand that one way to effectively work as a team is by
clear communication among the team members.
I understand that the trust of the members of the group help the
group to work more closely in the achievement of the
company’s goals.
I know how to build a strong team by recognizing the values of
every member of that team.
I understand that in order to effectively achieve the
5. organizational goals, I have to understand the overall purpose of
the organization.
The kind of culture where managers want to develop their team
members and are valued for that effort, and where all employees
are encouraged to learn new skills and share them, is not easy to
create. And, as with all other corporate initiatives, the company
internet is a great tool to promote this culture and elicit the
desired behaviors.
5
The knowledge that I still need to help me as a future leader.
To know to effectively communicate as communication plays an
important role leadership.
Understand different ways to motivate my team members to
improve their working morale.
Learn how to analyze risk and how to take them rum different
scenarios in the company.
Learning how to analyze various scenarios will enable me to
make better decisions.
Learn hot to set different goals for my team members.
Effectively understand how to evaluate the performance of my
team members in order to help those who need improvements.
Know to effectively articulate a vision for different projects in
the organization.
For example, if all your employees need basic Excel skills, the
easiest way to identify the gap between the reality and the
expectation is to conduct an anonymous self-assessment (or an
assessment by team leaders) and consolidate the results at
department level.
6
6. How I plan to obtain this knowledge
One way I plan to acquire this knowledge is by asking questions
from my superiors.
Another way is by observing the behaviors of the leaders in my
organization.
In order to acquire effective communication knowledge, I plan
to take professional communication classes.
Learn by studying how past successful larders solved various
situations.
Take up the role of a group leader so I can learn by practice as
in the organization.
Interact more with my peers so I can learn more about their
needs.
Communications channels in a digital workplace that are
synchronous (like chats and video-conferencing) or
asynchronous (like activity streams conversations and forums)
can be used to enhance the training and coaching experience for
all employees, whatever their location.
7
How I will leverage my knowledge to motivate and empower my
employees
One way I will use my knowledge to motivate my employees by
understanding their needs.
Design a way by which the fulfillment of the company’s needs
leads to the fulfillment of my employees needs.
I will use my knowledge to encourage my employees to work as
a team and this will help them to understand each other more.
Develop an effective reward program for the employees who
perform exceptional work.
Enhance clear communication to ensure that my employees
clearly understand their roles.
Earn my employees trust so they can come to me for assistance
whenever they have a problem or a challenging task.
7. If you really want to know what people think, just ask them.
You may receive feedback that you’re not listening or showing
appreciation as well as you could be. If you’ve established an
environment of honest and open communication, you should be
able to ask about your good qualities and the areas you need to
improve on. Your staff will appreciate your effort.
8
Other ways I will my knowledge to motivate my employees
By building collaboration and interaction culture within the
,company.
This will help my employees to be more acceptance of the
values and beliefs of their peers.
Create a conducive environment for the employees to in and this
will improve the productivity of the employees.
By recognizing and effectively rewarding the work done by my
employees.
By treating all the employees with fairness for instance by
ensuring fair remuneration based on the work performed by
each employee.
By continuously developing the skills of the employees to
ensure their career growth.
Knowing your areas of weakness does not make you weak; on
the contrary, it allows you to delegate to others who have those
abilities, in order to achieve the common goal. Rather than
clinging to the false belief that they can do it all, great leaders
hire people who complement, rather than supplement, their
skills. Working on your areas of weaknesses will improve your
leadership ability – and recognizing them makes you more
human.
9
8. What I can do to increase workplace morale
Providing the employees with a conducive environment which
will help to increase their productivity.
Enhancing clear communication channels within the
organization.
Ensuring fair remuneration for work done by the employees.
Giving all the employees equal opportunity for growth in the
organization.
Respecting the beliefs and values of every employee in the
company.
By being available for the employees so they can come to me
with any problem.
Ensuring that the employees have all the resources they require
to effectively perform they duties.
Effective leaders have an easy level of honest communication
with their teams and their peers, and a thorough understanding
of how they are perceived. Testing others’ perception of you
can be as simple as observing their behavior.
10
Conclusion
Human resource development within the human resource
division provide a cost effective way of development of
employees talents.
Understanding the values and the needs of the team members
enable a leader to build a strong team.
Effective communication by a leader to his employees gives
clear directives of what is expected of everyone in the
organization.
Productivity of the employees can be increased by improving
their motivation for instance by recognizing their efforts.
A good leader treats all his employees equally and fairly
without discrimination.
9. Understanding how to respect your peers values and beliefs
helps to build leadership qualities in a person.
One way to learn how to be an effective leader is by observing
the behaviors of successful leaders.
Today’s business professionals know that in order to achieve
success, they must commit to lifelong learning and skill
building. Enrolling in online business courses is one route to
improving your leadership skill set, and earning valuable
leadership certification.
11
References
Nadler, L. (2000). Corporate human resources development: A
management tool. Madison, Wis: American Society for Training
and Development.
Southern African Development Community., & Southern
African Development Community. Consultative Conference
(2000 : Mbabane, Swaziland). (2000). Human resources
development. Gaborone: SADC.
Training: The magazine of human resources development.
(2009). (Factiva.) Minneapolis: Lakewood Publications.
Personal Leadership Training Plan: Attributes
10. 1
Personal attributes as a leader
Self-managed- I manage myself in that I don’t wait to be given
directions to perform my duties.
Making difficult decisions-I make decisions focused on the
results e.g. decisions on which expenses to forego.
Am open to new ideas- for instance am open to different
strategies to solve difficult problems.
Adaptability- I am very adaptive to the changes in my life.
For instance, I adapt to changes like change reduction in my
income.
Am proactive in that I take the first steps in ensuring that I
achieve personal growth. For instance, I take risk in investing in
markets which are highly volatile but also highly rewarding.
Transformational leaders set a realistic and achievable vision
for the organization. They then communicate the vision
effectively to their followers, and also inspire a sense of
commitment and purpose. By getting every person to buy into
the common vision, transformational leaders are able to strongly
guide the organization in the direction that they want.
2
Qualities of martin Luther king- charismatic leader
Persistent- Martin Luther king had persistent in his leadership.
He was persistent in bringing change.
11. He was committed- despite the many achievement of Martin
Luther King, he was always committed to achieving more.
Focused on the ,end goal- Martin Luther never retraced from
achieving his goals no matter how hard situations got.
He was a pioneer of change- Martin Luther King demanded for
respect and tolerance for every person.
He was one of the people who initiated the civil rights
movement.
Martin Luther King played an important role in transforming his
followers which indicates his excellence as a leader.
King’s oratorical skills surely served as an ignition to build the
Civil Rights movement. We as leaders within our organization
can learn from that to be persuasive communicators that bring
in a sense of excitement to projects versus a dull outlook.
3
Drawbacks of a charismatic leader
Over reliance on the leader- Followers of a charismatic leader
wins from the motivational leadership of their leader but they
may become overreliance on the leader.
The perception- employees may hold other people in the
company at a lower level and this may affect how they take
initiatives of others rather than the leader.
Lack of clarity- A charismatic leader may be overconfident on
his control that he may fail to identify potential dangers.
There is lack of visionaries- A charismatic leader may believe
in himself so much that he retains all or majority of the powers.
A charismatic leader fails in developing others who may
succeed them.
12. Charisma is often a powerful trait in motivating staff and
gaining the support of both employees and the public. While a
charismatic leader is able to exert his influence to produce
positive results for the company, potential drawbacks exist
when using the charismatic leadership style. Understand those
disadvantages to use charismatic leadership in a positive way.
4
Drawback of a transformational leader
The influence can backfire- Transformational leaders has the
ability to take their followers into achieving various goals.
Immoral leaders can therefore influence his followers to doing
evil tasks.
May lead to wrong decisions- Transformational leaders
stimulates the minds of their followers. This can make the
followers agree with their decision without discussions.
Transformational leadership can lead burn out of the employees
by making them work for long hours to achieve the company’s
goals.
It is risky because the subordinates can be made to fulfill the
goals of the leader through their influence even when the goals
have no merits.
Details challenges- Despite the many benefits of
transformational leadership, the leaders some times may leave
the details out and this can have an adverse impact on the
organization.
13. Always being compared with transactional leadership,
transformational leadership is one of the most prominent styles
practiced by leaders. This works under the premise that the
leader should work with his or her followers or subordinates to
achieve common goals and changes. These are the leaders
inspire, motivate and lead followers to a direction that both
parties find to be beneficial and important for everybody. They
also have the means to make their followers share the same
enthusiasm they possess and think of the betterment of many
than just one person. This type of leadership is one that makes
people perform better and maximize their potential. However,
despite the benefits attributed to transformational leadership,
there are also numerous flaws seen by critics
5
Reasons why I chose my charismatic leader
One reason why I chose Martin Luther King is that he was
committed to changing the lives of the ordinary citizens.
Another reason is that he never gave on his goals despite going
through difficult situations.
Martin Luther also believed in inspirational of his followers to
bring about change.
I chose Martin Luther because he tackled various topics and he
never gave in to threats or attacks.
Another reason is that he had a big dream to change the lives of
millions through sharing his message to his followers.
Martin Luther King also engaged in topics which no one had
tackled like the civil rights.
14. Dr. Martin Luther believed in addressing topic of civil rights
from all directions, He did not stay in one lane and he did not
back down from his efforts because of threats.
6
Insights I gained from the attributes of martin Luther king
One of the insights that I gained is that I should not hesitate to
help others.
I also learned that, to be a good leader, I have to tolerate and
respect the views of others.
I also learned that in order to become an excellent leader, I need
to have positive transformation on those who I lead.
I also learnt that in order to effective in my communication, I
need to be straight to the point.
That in order to become a good leader, I need ,to be the pioneer
of change that I and my followers seek.
I also learnt that in order to achieve my goals, I need to be
persistent and don’t be deterred by threat or difficulties.
While his life was cut tragically short, he died in pursuit of his
dream and in spite of everything he faced, he never gave up on
it. He faced obstacles I could never imagine having to face, and
still persisted. This reminds me that the small things in my life
that often seem insurmountable, are just my excuses for not
taking action and are not obstacles. In reality, I am the only
obstacle to my own dreams.
7
Transformational leader- steve jobs
Steve Job is innovative- Steve Job, who is the founder of Apple,
was persistent in developing products that will revolutionize the
15. human life.
He believed in perfection- He believed in making perfect
products and when perfection was not attained, he would do
anything to change it.
He had a clear vision- He believed that time is limited and
therefore one should not waste it trying to meet someone else
expectations.
Had good communication skills- Steve Jobs went straight to the
point making it clear what he expected from his subordinates.
He was specific- Steve Jobs was clear about his goals and
visions which shows that he knew exactly what he wanted.
Persistent- Steve Jobs was persistent in his efforts to achieve
his goals and he believed that failure could not stop him.
When Apple grew up as a company, Steve Jobs hired John
Sculley and at the board meeting, he was kicked out of the
company. But that’s not where Steve Jobs stopped. Rather it
helped him more to grow. The heaviness of being successful
was supplanted with the lightness of being a beginner. After
being kicked out, he started two companies,. NEXT and PIXAR
Not only this, he even found his spouse in this period. Apple
purchased NEXT stock resulting in Steve Jobs’ return to Apple.
The amalgam of NEXT hardware with Apple resulted in
operating systems like IOS used for I Phones.
8
Four qualities that a leader possesses
Self-confident- One of the six qualities of a transformative
leader discussed in the Van Wart’s article self-confident.
A transformative leader is a leader who believes in themselves
16. and their ability to achieve their goals.
Another quality is inspirational- A transformational leader
should inspire his followers to ward the achievement of the
organizational goals and objectives.
Supportive- Another quality that a transformative leader should
posses is being supportive.
A good transformative leader supports and encourages the
efforts made by his subordinates.
Revolutionary- A good transformative leader should engage in
bringing constructive change to his subordinates.
Today, more than ever, we need courageous leaders who
empower others to reach heights they never thought possible.
We need our leaders to expand their capabilities and move
outside of the transactional space and into a transformational
space that focuses on long term solutions rather than short term
gains.
9
Is a transformational leader detrimental to organization or
society?
Transformational leaders has the ability to take their followers
into achieving various goals. Immoral leaders can therefore
influence his followers to doing evil tasks.
Transformational leaders stimulates the minds of their
followers. This can make the followers agree with their decision
without discussions.
Transformational leadership can lead burn out of the employees
by making them work for long hours to achieve the company’s
goals.
It is risky because the subordinates can be made to fulfill the
17. goals of the leader through their influence even when the goals
have no merits.
Despite the many benefits of transformational leadership, the
leaders some times may leave the details out and this can have
an adverse impact on the organization.
In some instances, a transformational leader can be detrimental
to the society or the organization.
The theories of transformational leadership discuss and suggest
the importance of transformational leaders in the organizations
for sustainable growth. However this is not always true as
transformational leaders can be considered as a menace to their
organizations because they ignore the needs of their followers.
10
Why I selected my transformational leader- Steve jobs
One of the reasons why I selected Steve Jobs is because he was
an innovator.
He believed in the production of exceptional products that will
change how people live their lives.
Another quality is that he was focused. He focused on getting
few projects done to ensure their perfection.
He was adaptable which means that he could handle rapid
changes can still achieve his objectives.
One thing I learnt from Steve Jobs is that I should never let
failure stop me from achieving my goals.
Another thing I learnt from the leadership style of Steve Jobs is
that I should have a clear vision of what I want to achieve.
I also learnt that I should pursue things which I have passion in
as this will promote my productivity.
18. Some of that vision comes from truly loving what you do.
Vision challenges people to do their best, to create that thing
that no one saw coming and to focus on a singular goal or
achievement. About vision, Jobs said: 'If you are working on
something exciting that you really care about, you don't have to
be pushed.
11
References
Crowson, M. (2002). Leadership styles. Abilene, TX: Abilene
Christian University Tape Service.
Geithner, C. (2007). Understanding leadership styles. Place of
publication not identified: Healthy Learning.
Kippenberger, T. (2002). Leadership styles. Oxford: Capstone
Pub.
Meyer, R., & Meijers, R. (2018). Leadership agility: Developing
your repertoire of leadership styles. London: Routledge.
Wirba, A. V. (2012). Leadership Styles. Saarbrücken: LAP
LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
VOLUME 4, NUMBER 1, 2010
19. 1
Models of Decision Making
Fred C. Lunenburg
Sam Houston State University
_____________________________________________________
___________________
ABSTRACT
Some models have been developed to help school leaders
determine how and to what
extent to involve followers in decision making. In this article, I
discuss three of those
models: the decision tree, the decision-making pattern choice
model, and the
synergistic decision making model.
_____________________________________________________
20. ___________________
Frequently groups, rather than individuals, make decisions in
school organizations
(Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). How do leaders know when to
involve followers in the
decision making process? Models of decision making have been
developed to help school
leaders determine when, how, and to what extent to involve
followers in the decision-
making process. In this article, I describe three of the most
popular and useful models of
decision making: the decision tree, the decision-making pattern
choice model, and the
synergistic decision making model.
The Decision Tree: Road Map to Decision Making
Victor Vroom, Philip Yetton, and Arthur Jago (1998) have
developed a model to
help school leaders decide when and to what extent they should
involve others in the
decision-making process. First, the authors identify
21. characteristics of a given problem
situation using a series of seven questions. Second, they isolate
five decision-making
styles that represent a continuum from authoritarian to
participatory decision-making
approaches. Finally, they combine the key problem aspects with
the appropriate decision-
making style to determine the optimum decision approach a
school leader should use in a
given situation.
Characteristics of a Given Problem Situation
The key characteristics of a decision situation, according to the
Vroom-Yetton-
Jago model, are as follows:
1. Is there a quality requirement such that one solution is likely
to be more rational
than others?
FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
2____________________________________________________
_________________________________
22. 2. Does a school leader have sufficient information to make a
high-quality decision?
3. Is the decision situation structured?
4. Is acceptance of the decision by the school leader's followers
critical to effective
implementation of the decision?
5. Is it reasonably certain that the decision
would be accepted by followers if the
school leader were to make it alone?
6. Do the school leader's followers share the
organizational goals to be achieved if
the problem is solved?
7. Is the preferred solution likely to cause conflict among the
followers?
In other words, these key variables should determine the extent
to which a school leader
involves others in the decision process or makes the decision
alone, without their input.
Decision-Making Styles
23. Five alternative decision-making styles, from which a school
leader can choose,
include the following:
1. School leaders solve the problems or
make the decision themselves, using
information available at that time.
2. School leaders obtain the necessary
information from others, then decide on the
solution to the problem themselves. They may or may not tell
others what the
problem is when they request information. The role played by
others in making
the decision is clearly one of providing the necessary
information to school
leaders, rather than generating or evaluating alternative
solutions.
3. School leaders share the problem with
relevant others individually, getting their
ideas and suggestions without bringing them together as a
group. Then school
leaders make the decision that may or may not reflect others'
influence.
4. School leaders share the problem with other
24. members as a group, collectively
obtaining their ideas and suggestions. Then they make the
decision that may or
may not reflect others' influence.
5. School leaders share a problem with others as
a group. School leaders and others
together generate and evaluate alternatives and attempt to reach
agreement
[consensus] on a solution. School leaders do not try to influence
the group to
adopt their preferred solution, and they accept and implement
any solution that
has the support of the entire group (Vroom, Yetton, Yago,
1998).
Choosing the Appropriate Style
Vroom, Yetton, and Jago match the decision styles to the
situation as determined
by answers to the seven questions. By answering these
questions, the preferred decision
style for each type of problem is identified. Figure 1 depicts
how the Vroom-Yetton-Jago
model works.
31. No D
A
A
B
D
E
FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
4____________________________________________________
_________________________________
The flow chart provides the school leader with a step-by-step
approach to
determining the most appropriate style of decision making under
a given set of
circumstances. To see how the model works, start at the left-
hand side and work toward
the right. When you reach a letter, the letter corresponds to the
optimum decision-making
style to use.
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model represents an important
improvement over rational
32. decision-making theory with implications for shared decision
making. The authors have
identified major decision strategies that are commonly used in
making decisions, and
they have established criteria for evaluating the success of the
various strategies under a
variety of situations. Moreover, they have developed an applied
model for school leaders
to use in selecting decision strategies, which improves the
quality of decisions,
acceptance of the decisions by others, and minimizes the time
consumed in decision
making.
The Decision Making-Pattern Choice Model
Another approach to shared decision making, which specifies
circumstances
under which participation should be used, was developed by
Robert Tannenbaum and
Warren Schmidt (2010). These authors posited seven different
decision making patterns,
ranging on a continuum from what they call "boss-centered
decision making" to
33. "subordinate-centered decision making." (See Figure 2.)
Boss-centered
leadership
Subordinate-centered
leadership
Figure 2. The decision making-pattern choice model.
Use of authority
34. by the leader
Areas of freedom
for subordinates
Leader
makes and
announces
decision
Leader
“sells”
decision
Leader
presents
ideas and
invites
questions
Leader
presents
tentative
36. permits
subordinates
to function
within limits
defined by
superior
FRED C. LUNENBURG
_____________________________________________________
________________________________5
The theme of this approach is that a wide range of factors
determine whether or
not directive decision making, shared decision making, or
something in between is best.
These factors fall into four broad categories: forces in the
leader, forces in the
subordinate, forces in the situation, and long-run goals and
strategy.
Forces in the Leader
37. Some of the factors operating in the school leader's personality
that influence the
choices among the seven decision making patterns from which
she must choose include
the following:
1. The school leader’s value system. How
strongly does the leader feel that
individuals should have a share in making the decisions that
affect them? Or, how
convinced is the leader that the official who is paid or chosen to
assume
responsibility should personally carry the burden of decision
making? Also, what
is the relative importance that the leader attaches to
organizational efficiency and
personal growth of staff members?
2. The school leader's confidence in the group
members. Leaders differ in the
amount of trust they have in other people generally. After
considering the
knowledge and competence of a group with respect to a
problem, a leader may
(justifiably or not) have more confidence in his own capabilities
38. than in those of
the group members.
3. The school leader's own leadership
inclinations. Leaders differ in the manner
(e.g., telling or team role) in which they seem to function more
comfortably and
naturally.
4. The school leader's feelings of security in an
uncertain situation. The leader
who releases control over the decision-making process reduces
the predictability
of the outcome. Leaders who have a greater need than others for
predictability and
stability are more likely to "tell" or "sell" than to "join."
Forces in the Group Members
Before deciding how to lead a certain group, the school
administrator will also
want to remember that each member, like herself, is influenced
by many personality
variables and expectations. Generally speaking, the leader can
permit the group greater
39. freedom if the following essential conditions exist:
1. Members have relatively high needs for independence.
2. Members have readiness to assume responsibility.
3. Members have a relatively high tolerance for ambiguity.
4. Members are interested in the problem and feel that it is
important.
5. Members understand and identify with the goals of the
school.
6. Members have the necessary knowledge and experience to
deal with the problem.
7. Members expect to share in decision making.
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6____________________________________________________
_________________________________
Forces in the Situation
Two of the critical environmental pressures on the school
leader are as follows:
40. 1. The problem itself. Do the members have the
kind of knowledge that is needed?
Does the complexity of the problem require special experience
or a one-person
solution?
2. The pressure of time. The more the leader
feels the need for an immediate
decision, the more difficult it is to involve other people.
Long-Run Goals and Strategy
As the school leader works on daily problems, his choice of a
decision making
pattern is usually limited. But he may also begin to regard some
of the forces mentioned
as variables over which he has some control and to consider
such long-range goals as the
following:
1. Raising the level of member motivation.
2. Improving the quality of all decisions.
3. Developing teamwork and morale.
41. 4. Furthering the individual development of members.
5. Increasing the readiness to accept change.
Generally, a fairly high degree of member-centered behavior is
more likely to
achieve these long-range purposes. But the successful school
administrator can be
characterized neither as a strong leader nor as a permissive one.
Rather, she is one who is
sensitive to the forces that influence her in a given situation and
one who can accurately
assess those that should influence her.
The Synergistic Decision Making Model
How can a school leader effectively put the resources of a
group (or a team) to
work on a problem? Getting several people together in one
location and using each of
their strengths to facilitate decision making is always a
challenge to a leader. To
accomplish this, the group must work smoothly in a team effort
and not be dominated by
42. one individual or factions within the group.
The key to creating the proper environment for shared decision
making is shown
in Figure 3 and is based to a great degree on effective
communication skills (Nash, 2011).
Following, I examine how each component of the model relates
to each of the others
when attempting shared decision making.
FRED C. LUNENBURG
_____________________________________________________
________________________________7
Figure 3. The synergistic decision making model.
Listening
Active listening is not an automatic, easy process, especially
when feelings are
sensitized and frustration is evident within the group. To
effectively accomplish the task,
however, a listener should do the following:
43. • Always respect another's feelings
• Never interrupt when another person is talking
• Never prejudge
• Always be considerate of someone else's remark
• Never let rank or authority influence a comment
• Always pay close attention to everything that is said
Responding
Answering a remark that has been addressed to a group member
occasionally
requires a high degree of skill and tact. An often overlooked
fact in shared decision
making is that an improper response (even when it is merely
perceived that way) can
reduce the effects of positive synergism. Accordingly, when
responding, an individual
should take care to do the following:
• Paraphrase the remark, when applicable.
• Never respond in a disparaging manner.
44. • Keep the other person's feelings in mind at all times.
• Avoid any type of premature judgment.
• Always assume that the other person has spoken
with sincerity.
• Avoid having the "final say" in the matter.
Clarifying Listening
Responding Reinforcing
FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
8____________________________________________________
_________________________________
Reinforcing
The skill of reinforcing should not be confused with being
condescending. The
key here is to build on the previous remark(s) so as to
encourage more creative thinking
for all individuals on the team. To induce the best type of
synergistic effect when
45. reinforcing, an individual should do the following:
• Create the proper climate for a non-threatening dialogue.
• Encourage free discussion by acknowledging
appropriate remarks.
• Accept the other person's right to express themselves
freely.
• Speak in a noncompetitive manner.
• Build on individual and group ideas.
• Encourage various viewpoints as they arise.
Clarifying
During the course of the decision-making process, there will
usually be moments
when a statement or remark made by another person needs
clarification. Not to provide
that clarification would be a serious mistake. What is important
to the process is to get
every possible confusing or unclear point clarified so that some
type of judgment can be
made about it. When attempting to clarify, an individual should
always take care to do
46. the following:
• Phrase the question in a neutral way.
• Never imply that a foolish question has been raised.
• Not show any impatience in either voice tone or body
language.
• Deal specifically with the question being addressed.
• Not generalize about the other person's intentions.
• Don't assume that you always have the answer.
Clearly, there are a variety of problems in decision-making
processes. Individuals
and groups have various biases and personal goals that may lead
to suboptimal decisions.
A technique such as the synergistic decision making approach
aims to minimize many of
these problems by allowing individuals greater freedom of
expression, and the group
receives far less filtered information with which to make its
decision. Thus, although not
perfect, this technique can assist leaders in need of mechanisms
to improve both the
quality and the timeliness of decisions made by groups in
47. schools.
Conclusion
Models of decision making have been developed to help school
leaders determine
when, how, and to what extent to involve followers in the
decision-making process.
Three of the most popular and useful models of decision making
(the decision tree,
decision-making pattern choice model, and synergistic decision
making model) were
discussed.
FRED C. LUNENBURG
_____________________________________________________
________________________________9
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago decision tree model of
determining the level of group
involvement in the decision-making process requires the leader
to diagnose a problem
situation and the effect participation will have on the quality of
48. the decision, level of staff
members acceptance, and the time available to make the
decision.
Another approach to shared decision making, which specifies
circumstances
under which participation should be used, is Tannenbaum and
Schmidt’s decision
making-pattern choice model. The model posits seven different
decision making patterns
ranging on a continuum from “boss-centered
decision making” to “subordinate-centered
decision making.” Nash’s synergistic decision making model is
a technique for increasing
the advantages and limiting the disadvantages of shared
decision making.
References
Lunenburg, F. C., & Ornstein, A. O. (2008). Educational
administration: Concepts and
practices (5
th
ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage.
Nash, M.(2011). Developing language and communication skills
through small group
49. work. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Tannenbaum, R., & Schmidt, W. (2010). How to choose a
leadership pattern. Boston,
MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Vroom, V., Yetton, P., & Jago, A. (1998). The new leadership:
Managing participation
in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Design
Vroom-Yetton-Jago: Deciding How to
Decide
! Rafiq Elmansy " Vroom-Yetton-Jago
Design managers and art directors face critical times when they
need to make
strategic decisions that will not only affect the design process
but also the
entire production stage and subsequently the success of the
product. While it is
impossible to element the risk involved in decision-making,
managers reduce
this risk to a minimal level by deciding if they need to make the
decision alone
or consult with the team for the best results. Different models
have been
provided to guide managers through this decision making
50. process.
One of the theories used to help managers to take decisions is
the Vroom-
Yetton-Jago model. It was developed in 1973 as a collaboration
between Victor
Vroom and Phillip Yetton, and later in 1988 with the help of
Arthur Jago. This
model aims to identify the best management style that can be
applied in
different situations, and subsequently the optimal decision-
making approach
to implement in these situations. The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model
defines
different managers and how they make decisions. Basically, it
says that the
decisions we make are affected by three main factors that work
together:
quality, the potential for collaboration, and the amount of time
available.
Quality: This factor is concerned with the quality of the
decision and how
important it is to make the best choice. It also considers the
future
consequences of the decision. The higher the quality of the
decision, the more
time and team members should be involved in the decision-
making process.
Collaboration: Is this a one-person decision that a design
manager can make
without consulting the team or does it require a collaboration
and consultation
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from the team involved in the project? Adding team members to
the decision-
making process increases the quality of the output as well as the
time required
to reach a decision.
52. Time: What is the time limit for making the decision? The more
time available
to the design manager, the better quality verdict can be reached
and more
team members can be consulted.
Leadership Style and Decision
Making
As mentioned previously, how the decision is undertaken
depends upon the
type of leadership style adopted in the project. When a leader is
asked to make
a decision, it occurs along one of the five models of action
identified below:
Autocratic (A1): The leader makes the decision by himself
using existing
information without any communication with the team.
Autocratic (A2): The leader consults with team members to get
information,
but make the decision by himself or herself without informing
the group.
Consultative (C1): The leader consults the team members to get
their opinion
about the situation, but he or she makes the de0cision for
themselves.
Consultative (C2): The leader consults the team members
seeking opinions
and suggestions, but he or she makes the decision for himself or
herself. In this
type of leadership style, the leader is open to suggestions and
ideas.
55. There is enough time to consult the team members and hear
their
suggestions
Vroom-Yetton-Jago
model Decision Tree
In order to define the leadership style required in specific
situations, the
following seven questions should be answered:
1. Is the quality of the decision important?
2. Is team commitment important for the decision?
3. Do you have enough information to make the decision on
your own?
4. Is the problem well-structured?
5. Would the team support your decision if you made it alone?
6. Does the team share the organization’s goals?
7. Is there likely to be conflict amongst the team over the
decision?
The Vroom Yetton Jago decision tree model
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59. design and innovation consultant. He is an affiliated faculty
teaching design at the American University in Cairo. He holds a
master degree in Design Management with Distinction from
Staffordshire University, UK. He has more than 17 years
experience in the field of
UXD and interaction design, and his books are published by
John Wiley, O’Reilly
Media and Taylor and Francis. He is also a contributor at the
Design Management
Review. Rafiq is a jury board member for the A'Design Awards,
Poster for
Tomorrow, and Adobe Achievements Awards. His design
artwork was exhibited in
many locations including Croatia, South Africa, Brazil, and
Spain.
The Decision-Making
Process Designers
Should Use Daily
Five Steps to Achieve a
Reliable Decision-
Making Process
Decision Matrix: How to
Make the Right Decision
How to Create the
System Thinking
Diagrams
How to Use Task
Analysis Grid in Service
Design
60. CATWOE: Building a
Problem-Solving
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66. 5 Successful Open Innovation
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70. by Ken Blanchard
WISH I COULD TELL YOU
-there's a single solu-
tion to managing peo-
ple—or one best leadership style. Re-
grettably, that's not the case. There is,
however, a practical, easy-to-under-
stand approach—Situational Leadership.
Effective leaders adapt their style
according to the development level of
the people they are managing.
In Situational Leadership, there are
four leadership styles representing
different combinations of directive
and supportive behaviors.
• Directive behavior is defined as the
extent to which you engage in one-way
communication; spell out the person's
role; tell the person what to do, where
to do it, when to do it, and how to do
it; and then oversee performance.
Three words define directive behavior:
structure, control, and superoise.
• Supportive behavior is the extent to
which you engage in two-way com-
munication, listen, provide support and
encouragement, facilitate interaction,
and involve people in decision-making.
71. Three words define supportive behav-
ior: praise, listen and facilitate.
Four Styles
The degree of direction or support
you provide depends on the develop-
ment level of the person for the task.
There are four development levels:
Style 1. Directing. High-directive/
low-supportive leader behavior is
Directing. You define the roles of peo-
ple and tell them what, how, when,
and where to do various tasks. You
initiate problem-solving and decision-
making. You announce solutions and
decisions and supervise implementa-
tion. You set goals, develop action
plans, provide direction, set time-lines,
and closely supervise people when
they are inexperienced or incompetent
with a task, even if committed.
Poor results tell you to focus on
developing your team members' com-
petence, confidence, and motivation.
To improve your use of this style,
you may want to be more specific
about what each team member's job is
and what a "good job" looks like.
2. Coaching. High-directive/high-
supportive behavior is Coaching. Ln this
style, you still provide direction, but
72. you also hear the person's feelings,
ideas and suggestions. You increase
two-way communications but main-
tain control over decision-making.
Coaching is for low-to-moderate
development level. People who have
some competence but lack commit-
ment to take responsibility need both
direction and support. Thus, a coach-
ing style—one that provides directive
behavior (because of their lack of com-
petence) but also supportive behavior
to build confidence and enthusiasm—
is most effective. Coaches both direct
and support their people. This style
builds confidence and motivation in
people, while keeping responsibility
for decision-making with the leader.
To improve your use ot this style,
you may want to ask for input on
goals and plans with competent team
members and praise progress.
3. Supporting. High-supportive/
low-directive behavior is Supporting. In
this style, your role is to provide recog-
nition and to actively listen and facili-
tate problem-solving and decision-
making. As competence rises, most
people question whether they can per-
form the task on their own. Here a
Supporting st)'le is appropriate. People
need to be heard and encouraged.
73. Supporting is for moderate-to-high
development level. These people are
competent but have variable commit-
ment toward the task. You need to
practice two-way communication and
active listening and to support peo-
ple's efforts to use their skills. You lis-
ten, facilitate, and shift some control
for day-to-day decision-making and
problem-solving to team members.
You provide support and encourage-
ment when they lack confidence or
motivation on a given task.
To improve your use of this style,
you may ask more questions, praise
performance, or encourage your team
members to solve their own problems.
4. Delegating. Low-supportive/low-
directive behavior is Delegating. You
allow people greater autonomy, since
they have the competence, commit-
ment and confidence to do the task.
People at this level are competent and
motivated to take responsibility. Thus,
a low-profile delegating style—one
that provides little dia'ction and sup-
port—is likely to be effective. Even
though you may still identify the prob-
lem, you delegate the responsibility for
carrying out plans to experienced fol-
lowers. They are permitted to "nin the
show" and decide on how, when, and
where tasks are to be accomplished.
74. Empower competent and confident
team members to manage their own
performance. CoUaboratively set goals
and then delegate day-to-day decision-
making to experienced team members.
To improve your use of this style,
you may ask your team members to
tell you what resources they need to
excel and tlien secure those resources.
Wtien to Use Each Style
The right style is primarily a func-
tion of the degree of difficulty of the
task and the developmental level of
the person doing the task.
Developmental level is the degree
of competence and commitment a person
has to perform a task without supervi-
sion. Competence is a function of know-
ledge and skills which can be gained
from education, training, or experi-
ence. Commitment is a combination of
confidence (self-assuredness) and
motivation (interest and enthusiasm).
The factor that triggers a change in
style is performance. Improvements in
performance shift the leadership style.
Effective managers adapt their style to
match development levels and meet
changing demands. Over time individ-
uals and teams develop their own pat-
75. terns of behavior and ways of operating;
these constitute the norms, customs,
traditions, and mores of the ailture.
You may use one leadership style
for the team, but a different style when
dealing one-on-one, since individuals
are at different levels of development.
Shifting forward and backward in
style makes Situational Leadership a
dynamic developmental model. LE
Ken Blancliardis (/it'UMlhor ô (fw One-Minute Manager senVs
and CEO of the Ken Blanchard Companies- Call 800-728-6000
or visit teww.bigspeak.cotit.
.ACTION: Practice situatiomil leadership.
Copyright of Leadership Excellence Essentials is the property
of HR.com, Inc. and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a
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holder's express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for
individual use.
LEADERSHIP • ñlHIATIONAl
Situational Leaders
U s e t h e m o d e l i n y o u r w o r k .
76. by Paul Hersey
MODEL IS MEANT TO
.be applied in vari-
ous situations. In fact,
for a model to have value, it has to be
used. And to be used, it must be simple.
The Sitiiational Leadership Model is
about being more effective as a leader.
This involves matching your leader
behaviors (behaviors you use when
trying to influence someone else) with
the performance needs of the individ-
ual or group that you work with. It is
about adapting the directive and sup-
portive behaviors you use to match
the readiness of others to perform spe-
cific tasks or functions. The model is
simple, it works, and achieves results.
Take Three Steps
In using the Situational Leadership
Model, take three steps:
Step Î; Identify the specific job,
task, or activity. There needs to be a
shared picture of what good perfor-
mance looks like in the minds of the
leader and follower. More specifically,
what job task or activity is the focus or
purpose of the intervention? The key
determinant is the person's under-
standing of what the leader wants
77. done. How specific does the leader
need to be? For one individual, a high
specificity may be needed. For anoth-
er individual, high specificity might
be perceived as micromanaging.
Step 2: Assess current performance
readiness. Once the task or activity is
identified, diagnose the Performance
Readiness of the person you are trying
to influence. How ready, willing, and
able is the person? Readiness is the
interplay between ability and willing-
ness that a person demonstrates for a
specific task. The two variables, ability
and wiUingness, are interactive, mean-
ing that one impacts the other.
Ability is the amount of knowledge,
experience, and skill that a person is
currently demonstrating for a task.
Willingness is the amount of confi-
dence, commitment, and motivation
demonstrated. For instance, a strong
motivation can make a person appear
very willing. The interplay between
ability and willingness determines the
four levels of Performance Readiness.
Level Ri: Unable and Insecure or
Unable mid Unwilling. Unable and
Insecure is low skill demonstration and
the issue is driven by insecurity. The
individual could be intimidated by the
78. task, overwhelmed, unclear, or uncer-
tain about what is expected and how
to perform. Unable and Unioilling
means levels of demonstrated skill are
low, and the motivation and willing-
ness to perform is also low.
Level R2: Unable but Confident or
Willing. R2 suggests "not ready yet" or
"ignorance on fire." In fact, on a new
task, most people start at this readi-
ness level. The confidence and willing-
ness can come from within, from
others, or by working in a healthy, safe
DIRECTIVE B&IAVIOUR •
environment. A person may be
"unable" simply because they haven't
performed the task or had a chance to
demonstrate ability.
Level R3: Able but Insecure or Able but
UnziiilUng. Ability is now being denion-
strated, fairly consistently, at moderate-
to-high levels. The person may be
"insecure" when starting to perform
with less involvement from the leader.
The person may be "unwilling" when
the task may be less rewarding than
expected, problems won't go away, or
performing is punishing.
Level R4: Able and Confident and
Willing. Once a person reaches R4,
consistent high levels of ability blend
79. with confidence, commitment, or a
sense of ownership. Mofivafion and
desire for accomplishment are high.
Step 3: Match leader response.
Leadership style is composed of rela-
tionship behavior and task behavior.
Relationship behavior is the extent to
which a leader engages in two-way
communicafion with a person, provid-
ing socio-emofional support or psycho-
logical strokes. The leader explains
why something should be done and
provides facilitafing, parficipahng, or
involving behaviors.
Task behavior is the amount of guid-
ance or direction provided. It is the
extent the leader engages in defining
the who, what, when, where, and how
the task is to be performed.
Four Leadership Styles
These patterns of influence behavior
can be plotted on two distinct axes:
Style SI: High Task/Low Relation-
ship. SI is called "telling" since it is
characterized by one-way communica-
fion. The leader defines the role, shows
how to begin, and tells who, what,
when, where, and how in relafion to
the task. Informing or guiding are also
80. examples of how a style SI may come
across to a person low in readiness.
This feels like a helping relationship,
except when the person is unwilling to
perform (not just insecure about their
ability). The exception calls for conse-
quences for nonperformance and be-
comes part of the unfreezing process.
Style S2: High Task/High Relation-
ship. S2 is referred to as "selling" since
the person receives two-way commu-
nication and socio-emotional support
in an attempt to gain "buy in" to the
decisions made. As leaders "sell," they
focus on explaining and mentoring to
increase understanding of the task.
Style S3: High Relationship/Low
Task. S3 is called "participating" since
the leader and individual share in d e d -
sion-making. Two-way communicafion
and facilitating behavior boost the per-
son's willingness/security, since they
already demonstrate the ability to com-
plete the task. Support and encourage-
ment characterize an effecfive use of
style S3. This style insfills ownership in
the decision-ma king process.
Style S4: Loiv Relationship/Low
Task. S4 is referred to as "delegafing"
since this style involves letting an indi-
vidual "run their own show." The
leader delegates tasks, as people show
they are able and willing to accomplish
81. the task at hand. A leader using a style
S4 spends more time monitoring pro-
gress as the person gets the job done.
There is no one best way to influence
others. Any influence behavior may be
more or less effecfive depending on the
Performance Readiness of the person, LE
Piiiil Hersey is the trwner of the Center fiir Leadersliip Studies.
Situatiisial Leaderships and Performance ReadinessS) are regis-
tt-reii triidemarks. Alt RigMs Reser^vd. Visit
wimv.sHuational.œtn.
ACTION: Let readiness drive ifour behaviors.
Unit V PowerPoint Presentation SKILLS
Personal Leadership Training Plan:
Skills
In this UNIT V, you will add SKILLS to your plan.
Within your presentation, respond to the following points:
1. What skills do you have that you can apply to the Hersey-
Blanchard Situational Leadership Model (SLM) and the Vroom-
Yetton Normative Decision Model?
2. What skills would be needed to implement the SLM and the
normative decision model?
3. How could you explain the differences between the SLM and
the normative decision model?
Your completed PowerPoint presentation must be a minimum of
10 slides in length, not counting the title and reference slides.
Additionally, a minimum of three peer-reviewed or academic
resources must be used. Keep the text on the slides concise, and
82. use the notes section to fully explain your ideas. All sources
used must be cited and referenced according to APA style.
In Unit II, you started your Personal Leadership Training Plan
and focused on attributes; in Unit IV, you focused on
knowledge.
