Religious_Secular_Architecture of Ancient India

Religious_Secular_Architecture of Ancient India

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  HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OFEARLY INDIAN ARCHITECTURE Types of Architecture Religious & Secular Architecture 01 Historical Account of Early Indian Architecture M.A. Ist Semester Sachin Kr. Tiwary
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  Lecture Roadmap 1 Hour· 2 Major Categories · 18+ Examples 01 Introduction What is Architecture? Why classify it? ⏱ 5 min 02 Defining the Two Types Secular vs Religious — criteria & scope ⏱ 5 min 03 Secular Architecture Town planning, palaces, civic structures, utilities ⏱ 20 min 04 Religious Architecture Buddhist, Hindu, Jain — temples, stūpas, caves ⏱ 20 min 05 Interaction & Overlap How secular and religious architecture influenced each other ⏱ 7 min 06 Summary & Q&A Key takeaways, recommended reading, questions ⏱ 3 min
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  Lecture Scope &Learning Framework SOURCE: Oxford Bibliographies; JNU teaching framework Define 'religious' and 'secular' architecture as analytical categories rather than rigid historical boxes. Trace major building types from Harappan urbanism through early historic and early classical architectural traditions. Read architecture through function, patronage, technology, materials, spatial organization and ritual/social use. Compare monuments as evidence: what survives archaeologically, what is reconstructed, and what remains uncertain.
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  SECTION 01 ·INTRODUCTION What Is Architecture? Before we classify, we must define 🧱 More than construction Architecture is not merely building — it is the art and science of designing spaces that serve human needs, express cultural values, and communicate meaning. 📐 Three dimensions of study Plan (spatial layout), Elevation (vertical face), Section (internal structure) — together these reveal how a building was conceived and used. 🌏 India's unique tradition Indian architecture spans 5,000 years from the Indus Valley cities to medieval temples — one of the world's richest continuous building traditions. 🔍 Why classify? Classifying into Secular and Religious helps us understand the PURPOSE behind a building — who commissioned it, who used it, and what values it embodied.
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  Two Great Streamsof Indian Architecture S EC U L A R Architecture Purpose: Everyday human needs — living, governing, trading, defence Patron: Kings, merchants, civic bodies, guilds Users: Entire population — citizens, soldiers, traders Character: Functional, pragmatic, planned for efficiency Examples: Cities, palaces, granaries, roads, docks, baths R E L I G I OU S Architecture Purpose: Worship, meditation, ritual, afterlife symbolism Patron: Kings, merchants (as donors), religious orders Users: Devotees, monks, priests, pilgrims Character: Symbolic, cosmological, awe-inspiring, sacred Examples: Stūpas, temples, caityas, vihāras, cave shrines VS
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  A Working HistoricalSequence SOURCE: UNESCO Dholavira; UNESCO Sanchi; JNU, Ahuja c. 3000–1500 BCE — Harappan urbanism: fortifications, houses, streets and water systems. c. 3rd–1st centuries BCE — Mauryan and early Buddhist monumentalism: stupas, pillars and cave architecture. c. 1st century BCE–3rd century CE — mature Buddhist complexes: chaitya, vihara and stupa traditions. c. 4th–7th centuries CE — Gupta and post-Gupta developments: early structural temple forms and expanded monastic/civic contexts.
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  RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE Architecture forthe Divine Stūpas · Temples · Vihāras · Caityas · Cave Shrines ☸️Buddhist • Stūpa • Caitya Hall • Vihāra • Rock-Cut Caves ️ 🕉️Hindu / Brahmanical • Nāgara Temple • Vesara Temple • Dravida Temple • Rock-Cut Shrines ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️Jain • Shrine Complexes • Cave Temples • Pillar Monuments • Open-Air Sites
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  What Do WeMean by 'Religious' Architecture? SOURCE: UNESCO Sanchi; UNESCO Nalanda; JNU, Ahuja Buildings whose primary institutional or symbolic function is connected to worship, ritual, relic veneration, pilgrimage, monastic life or sacred images. Major early Indian types include stupa complexes, chaitya halls, viharas, rock-cut sanctuaries and structural temples. Monastic architecture can combine worship, residence, education, storage and administration. Thus, 'religious' describes a dominant function, not one single architectural form.
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  RELIGIOUS · BUDDHIST BuddhistArchitecture I: The Stūpa The defining monument of Early Buddhism · c. 3rd century BCE onwards ← Chatra (Umbrella / Royalty) ← Harmikā (Square Railing) ← Āṇḍa (Cosmic Egg / Dome) ← Medhī / Drum ← Vedikā / Toraṇa Base ☸️Sānchi Stūpa No. 1 Madhya Pradesh, c. 3rd BCE–1st CE Great Stūpa — Aśokan core, later enlarged. Four elaborately carved toraṇas (gateways). Pradakṣiṇā path for circumambulation. ☸️Bharhut Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 BCE Red sandstone railing and gateway. Earliest large-scale narrative relief sculpture in India — Jātaka tales depicted. ☸️Amarāvatī Andhra Pradesh, c. 2nd BCE–3rd CE Mahācaitya — white marble stūpa. Unique Āndhra school of sculpture. "Drum slab" style with multiple figured panels. ☸️Dhamekh Stūpa, Sarnath Uttar Pradesh, c. 5th CE Marks site of Buddha's first sermon. Cylindrical form with carved floral and geometric bands. 43m tall.
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  RELIGIOUS · BUDDHIST BuddhistArchitecture II: Caitya Halls & Vihāras Two distinct building types — one for prayer, one for living ⛪ CAITYA HALL (Prayer Hall / Worship Space) Plan: Apsidal Hall • Apsidal (horseshoe-shaped) plan — semi-circular apse at far end • Rock-cut stūpa inside the apse — worship focus • Chaitya window (horseshoe arch) floods interior with light 🏠 VIHĀRA (Monastery / Monastic Residence) Plan: Square Courtyard + Cells • Square plan with central open courtyard (ākāśa-kuṭī) • Individual cells (kuṭīs) for monks along all four sides • Veranda runs inside all four sides — connects cells
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  RELIGIOUS · HINDU/ BRAHMANICAL Hindu Temple Architecture The temple as the dwelling-place of the god on earth · Three Regional Styles Nāgara Style North India Key: Curvilinear Śikhara • Tall curvilinear tower (śikhara) over sanctum • Āmalaka finial at crown — disc-shaped • Garbhagṛha (sanctum) square plan • Examples: Lingarāja (Bhubaneswar), Kandariya Mahādeva (Khajurāho) • Sub-styles: Latina, Śekhara, Bhūmija Vesara Style Deccan / Karnataka Key: Mixed Nāgara + Drāviḍa • Hybrid — combines north and south elements • Star-shaped (stellate) plan • Chalukya and Rāṣṭrakūṭa patronage • Examples: Pāṭṭadakal temples, Badami caves • Hoysala temples — Belūr, Halebīḍu Drāvi a Style ḍ South India Key: Pyramidal Vimāna • Stepped pyramidal tower (vimāna) with flat top • Massive gopurams (gateway towers) • Temple tank (puṣkariṇī) integral to complex • Examples: Bṛhadīśvara (Tanjāvūr), Mīnākṣī (Madurai) • Enclosed courtyard complex (prākāra)
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  RELIGIOUS · JAIN& ROCK-CUT Jain Architecture & Rock-Cut Traditions Sacred spaces carved from the living rock — Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain ⚜️Jain Architecture ⚜ Caves — Udayagiri & Khandagiri 1st cent. BCE (Odisha) — Jain cave shrines under Khāravela's patronage. Hāthīgumphā inscription is key source. ⚜ Ellora Jain Caves (30–34) Late period (9th–11th CE) — highly ornate Indra Sabhā cave. Dilwāra- style decoration inside. ⚜ Dilwāra Temples, Mount Ābū Marble temples (11th–13th CE) — finest marble carving in India. Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi. ⚜ Śravanabelagola 10th CE — Gommateśvara monolithic statue (18m) — open-air Jain monument in Karnataka. ⚜ Key Features White marble preference. Intricate ceiling medallions. Multiple shrines to Tīrthaṅkaras. Pilgrimage complexes. 🪨 Rock-Cut Architecture 🪨 Why Rock-Cut? Permanence, no transport of materials needed, natural insulation — cool in summer. Began c. 3rd BCE. 🪨 Barābara Caves Earliest (Aśoka, 3rd BCE). Polished interior surfaces. Lomas Rishi chaitya arch facade in stone. 🪨 Ajanta (29 caves) Buddhist — finest surviving ancient paintings in the world. Hinayana & Mahayana phases. 🪨 Ellora (34 caves) Buddhist, Hindu & Jain — all three in one site. Kailasanath (Cave 16) — most ambitious. 🪨 Elephanta Śaiva — Mahēśamūrti (Trimūrti) is a masterpiece of Indian sculpture. Island cave shrine.
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  S E CT I O N 0 3 SECULAR ARCHITECTURE Architecture for This World Cities · Palaces · Civic Structures · Trade · Defence · Water ️ 🏙️Town Planning ️ 🏛️Palaces & Courts 🚿 Water & Drainage 🌾 Granaries & Markets ️ 🛡️Forts & Defences ⚓ Ports & Docks
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  What Do WeMean by 'Secular' Architecture? SOURCE: UNESCO Dholavira; Oxford Bibliographies: Adam Hardy Buildings whose primary functions are urban, domestic, administrative, military, economic, hydraulic or residential. Examples include houses, streets, fortifications, gateways, palatial/administrative spaces, reservoirs, drains, workshops and market-related areas. Early secular architecture is often archaeologically fragmentary because many structures used perishable materials. The category is analytical: one complex may contain both secular and religious functions.
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  SECULAR · TOWNPLANNING Indus Valley: World's Earliest Urban Planning c. 2600–1900 BCE · Harappa · Mohenjo-daro · Kalibangan · Lothal Grid-Plan City Layout 🔲 Grid Street System Streets oriented on cardinal points; main roads up to 10m wide with lanes intersecting at right angles — unprecedented civic planning. 🚿 Drainage & Sanitation Covered brick drains ran under every street. Homes connected via inlets — a sewage system unmatched for 2,000 years. ️ 🏚️Standardized Housing Fired brick of standard ratio (1:2:4). Houses had courtyards, multiple rooms, dedicated bathing areas and wells. 🌾 Citadel & Lower Town Raised citadel (civic/administrative) separate from lower residential town — earliest known zoning of land use. 🛁 Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro) Large public water tank (12m × 7m) lined with bitumen — possibly ritual, possibly civic: a communal structure of great importance. 🌊 Lothal Dockyard World's earliest known tidal dockyard at Lothal (Gujarat) — demonstrates maritime trade infrastructure at urban scale.
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  SECULAR · MAURYANCITIES Mauryan Period: Pā aliputra & Arthaśāstra Town Planning ṭ c. 321–185 BCE · One of the ancient world's largest cities ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️Pā aliputra ṭ (Modern Patna, Bihar — capital of Mauryan Empire) 13 km × 2.4 km in extent — described by Megasthenes in Indica Massive wooden palisade with 570 towers and 64 gates Surrounded by a moat 200m wide — military engineering at scale 80-pillared Aśokan assembly hall — polished sandstone Royal palace praised as grander than Persian Persepolis Ganges & Son rivers served as natural defensive barriers Extensive river-port infrastructure for trade 📜 Kau ilya's Arthaśāstra ṭ The World's First Town-Planning Code (c. 4th BCE) ▸ Ideal capital (durgā) plan prescribed in detail ▸ Concentric layout — king's palace at centre ▸ Roads classified by width: rājamārga, vīthī, lanes ▸ Separate zones: markets, guilds, temples, slums ▸ Drainage, water storage specifications given ▸ Regulations for builders and architects ▸ Penalties for substandard construction
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  SECULAR · PALACES& COURTS Palaces, Courts & Royal Architecture Architecture as an expression of royal power and legitimacy ️ 🏛️Mauryan Palace, Pā aliputra ṭ c. 300 BCE • 80 polished stone pillars in throne room • Persian Achaemenid influence in column design • Megasthenes compared it to Persepolis & Susa • Now largely under modern Patna 🏛️Rājag ha (Magadha Court) ṛ Pre-Mauryan • Cyclopean stone walls — pre-cut stone blocks • Surrounded by 5 hills — natural fortress setting • Associated with Bimbisāra's court • Important for Mauryan political continuity 🏛️Vijayanagara Palace Complex c. 14th–16th CE • Lotus Mahal — fused Hindu-Islamic style • Elephant stables — monumental secular design • Queen's Bath — elegant public bathing structure • Demonstrates secular magnificence in later period 🏛️Key Features of Royal Architecture Common Characteristics • Raised platform (jagati) signals royal status • Multiple audience halls (sabhā) for governance • Separate zenana (women's quarters) • Gardens, fountains — pleasure architecture
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  SECULAR · CIVIC& UTILITY Civic & Utility Architecture Infrastructure that made ancient cities liveable 💧 Water Storage & Supply Stepwells (vāvs), reservoirs, and tanks across peninsular India. Dhola-Vīra (Gujarat) had 16 reservoirs. Irrigation channels fed agriculture. 🌾 Granaries & Warehouses Harappan granaries at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa — among the largest structures in the cities. Lothal's warehouse evidence of organized trade storage. ️ 🛤️ Roads & Gateways Mauryan royal roads (rājamārga) linked empire. Aśoka's pillars stood at road junctions. Gates (toraṇa) marked city entrances. ⚓ Ports & Dockyards Lothal's tidal dock (c. 2400 BCE). Later: Tamralipti, Bharuch, Sopara — major sea trade ports with warehouses and customs structures. ️ 🛡️ Fortifications & Defence Earthen, wooden, and stone ramparts. Rājagṛha's cyclopean walls. Kauṭilya describes 6 types of forts — hill, water, forest, desert, earth, and human. 🏦 Guilds & Market Structures Textile guilds (śreṇī) built workshops. Market places (hatta) were architecturally defined zones within cities, regulated by the state.
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  SECTION 05 ·INTERACTION & OVERLAP How Secular & Religious Architecture Influenced Each Other The boundary between "secular" and "religious" was fluid in ancient India → 🏙️ 🛕 City Plans Reflected Cosmos The Arthaśāstra mandates temples at city gates. Vedic ritual (yajna) guided the orientation of cities. Secular town planning incorporated sacred geometry (vāstu). → 💰 🛕 Merchants Funded Temples Guilds (śreṇī) and merchants (śreṣṭhīs) were the primary donors to Buddhist viharas and stupas. Secular wealth flowed directly into religious construction. →️ ️ 🏛️ ️ ⛩️ Palace Forms in Temples The temple's torana gateway derives from royal palace gates. The garbhagriha mirrors the royal inner sanctum. Temple = palace of the god. →🏗️ ️ ️️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ ️ Rock-Cut Imitated Built Forms The Lomas Rishi chaitya arch imitates wooden construction in stone. Rock-cut architecture began by mimicking free- standing structural traditions. → ⛩️ ️ 🏙️ Temple Complexes as Cities Great South Indian temples (Mīnākṣī, Tiruvanāmalai) became cities unto themselves — with markets, pilgrim hostels, tanks, and administrative structures around the shrine. →🛕 🛕 Royal Legitimacy via Temple Kings built temples to assert divine connection. The Rāṣṭrakūṭa Kailāśa temple was both a religious statement AND a political monument — announcing Rāṣṭrakūṭa supremacy over the Pallavas.
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  Harappan Urban Architecture:The Secular City Dholavira as a high-value archaeological case study URBAN FORM Walled city Fortified castle / bailey Middle Town Lower Town Streets and houses INFRASTRUCTURE Reservoirs Water harvesting Storm-water drainage Gateways Extensive stone construction SOCIAL / ECONOMIC Workshops Bead manufacture Cemetery Inter-regional trade Social stratification SOURCE: UNESCO, Dholavira: a Harappan City 07
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  Dholavira: Why ItMatters for Secular Architecture SOURCE: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Dholavira 08 Occupied approximately 3000–1500 BCE and described by UNESCO as one of the best-preserved urban settlements of its period in South Asia. The city demonstrates preconceived planning, multi-layered fortifications, sophisticated reservoirs and drainage. Residential units and workshop areas make everyday, productive and administrative space visible archaeologically. It shows that secular architecture includes systems of infrastructure—not merely palaces and houses.
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  Religious Architecture: MajorEarly Types STŪPA Relic monument Anda / dome Harmika Pradakṣiṇā patha Vedika + torana CHAITYA Worship / congregational hall Apsidal end Stupa focus Rock-cut and structural VIHĀRA Monastic residence Cells around a court Residential + educational functions TEMPLE / SHRINE Sacred image / deity Sanctum Emerging structural forms Regional experimentation SOURCE: UNESCO Sanchi; UNESCO Nalanda; JNU, Ahuja 09
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  Buddhist Architecture: TheStupa as Sacred Monument SOURCE: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi 10 Sanchi's Stupa 1 represents a mature form: hemispherical dome, harmika, circular terrace and circumambulatory paths. Toranas and vedika transform movement around the relic monument into an architectural and sculptural experience. The site documents development from the Mauryan period through later additions. Architecture, ritual movement, relic veneration and narrative sculpture operate together.
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  Rock-Cut Buddhist Architecture SOURCE:JNU, Development of Indian Temple Architecture and Sculpture; UNESCO Sanchi/Nalanda 12 Rock-cut architecture translates architectural types into excavated space rather than assembled masonry. Chaitya halls organize a longitudinal interior toward a stupa at the apsidal end. Viharas organize residence and communal life through cells and shared spaces. Rock-cut examples are especially valuable because columns, façades and spatial sequences survive in situ.
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  Nalanda: Religious +Residential + Educational Architecture SOURCE: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara 13 Nalanda's archaeological remains include stupas, shrines, viharas and votive structures. UNESCO identifies a planned north–south axial layout and formal linear alignment. Quadrangular viharas developed as residential-cum- educational infrastructure. Nalanda demonstrates why the religious/secular distinction must be treated as functional rather than absolute.
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  Early Hindu &Jain Traditions Shared architectural vocabularies matter HINDU Shrine / temple Sanctum-centered planning Image worship Regional temple forms JAIN Shrines and temples Tirthankara imagery Monastic / sacred contexts Shared architectural vocabulary SHARED FORMAL WORLD Plans, columns, halls Sculptural ornament Rock-cut experimentation Regional craft traditions SOURCE: Oxford Bibliographies: Adam Hardy; JNU, Ahuja 14
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  Why Religious 'Styles'Should Not Be Treated as Isolated SOURCE: Oxford Bibliographies in Hinduism, Adam Hardy 15 Architectural forms circulated across religious communities and regions. Oxford's overview cautions that Hindu temple architecture cannot be cleanly separated from wider Indian architectural traditions. Early Hindu monumental temple architecture has roots in earlier traditions known especially through Buddhist structures. Shared techniques and forms make comparison essential at PG level.
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  Secular Architecture: PrincipalEarly Types DOMESTIC Houses • courtyards • residential clusters URBAN Streets • gateways • neighbourhoods • markets DEFENSIVE Walls • ramparts • gates • fortified enclosures HYDRAULIC Reservoirs • drains • wells • water systems ECONOMIC Workshops • storage • production spaces ROYAL / ADMINISTRATIVE Palatial • ceremonial • governance spaces SOURCE: UNESCO Dholavira; archaeological literature on early Indian urbanism 16
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  Domestic Architecture: TheHouse as Evidence SOURCE: UNESCO, Dholavira 17 House plans reveal everyday social organization more directly than monumental architecture. Courtyards, rooms, thresholds, drainage and access patterns can indicate household structure and environmental adaptation. At Dholavira, houses occur within a planned hierarchy of castle, middle town and lower town. Domestic architecture provides a counterweight to monument- centred histories of architecture.
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  Fortification & DefensiveArchitecture SOURCE: UNESCO, Dholavira 18 Fortifications combine architecture with political geography: wall, gateway, controlled access and defensible zones. Dholavira includes substantial fortification and a fortified castle/bailey complex. Defensive structures are also markers of social organization, labour mobilization and authority. At PG level, fortification should be read as both a technical and political architectural system.
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  Water Architecture asSecular Infrastructure SOURCE: UNESCO, Dholavira 19 Water management is architecture: reservoirs, channels, drains, catchments and controlled access are spatial systems. Dholavira is especially important because reservoirs and drainage are integral to city planning. Hydraulic architecture links environment, technology, public organization and survival. It demonstrates that architectural history is not only the history of façades and monuments.
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  Where Religious andSecular Functions Meet The most useful PG-level insight is the overlap MONASTERY Religious Residential Educational Economic / administrative TEMPLE COMPLEX Ritual Pilgrimage Donor activity Water / gardens / service spaces CITY Political Economic Domestic Ritual / sacred nodes SOURCE: UNESCO Nalanda; UNESCO Dholavira; Oxford Bibliographies 20
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  Religious vs Secular:Analytical Comparison CATEGORY RELIGIOUS SECULAR Primary function Ritual / worship / pilgrimage Residence / administration / defence / production / exchange Spatial focus Sanctum, stupa, circumambulation, monastic court Street, courtyard, room, workshop, reservoir, fortification Patronage Rulers, donors, monastic communities, religious institutions Rulers, civic authorities, households, merchants, communities Evidence Stupas, shrines, temples, viharas, caves Houses, fortifications, streets, drains, reservoirs, workshops Overlap Religious sites can house people and institutions Secular sites can carry ritual / symbolic meaning SOURCE: Oxford Bibliographies: Adam Hardy; UNESCO site documentation
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  SUMMARY COMPARISON Secular vsReligious: Key Distinctions at a Glance Criterion Secular Architecture Religious Architecture Primary Goal Human utility, governance, defence Worship, ritual, spiritual merit Key Patron Rulers, guilds, merchants (civic) Rulers, monks, merchants (as donors) Primary User Entire civilian population Devotees, monks, priests, pilgrims Plan Logic Efficiency, defence, zoning Cosmological symbolism, ritual path Materials Brick, wood, earth, stone Stone, marble (sacred, permanent) Orientation Topographic / strategic Cardinal directions, solar alignments Decoration Minimal or functional Elaborate iconographic programmes Indian Examples Harappa, Pāṭaliputra, Vijayanagara Sānchi, Ajanta, Lingarāja, Dilwāra
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  Patronage: The LinkBetween Architecture & Power SOURCE: JNU, Ahuja; UNESCO Sanchi; UNESCO Dholavira 21 Monumental architecture requires resources, skilled labour, material supply and institutional organization. Religious patronage can involve rulers, donors, merchants and monastic institutions. Secular architecture can express authority through fortifications, planned settlements and administrative spaces. Architecture therefore records relationships among economy, political authority, religious institutions and communities.
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  Materials & Technology:Reading What Survives SOURCE: UNESCO Sanchi; UNESCO Dholavira 22 Brick, stone, timber, earth and rock-cut techniques leave very different archaeological signatures. Sanchi documents a transition from earlier wooden forms toward stone components such as railings and gateways. Dholavira is notable for extensive use of stone alongside sophisticated water infrastructure. Survival bias matters: what is archaeologically visible is not necessarily what was historically most common.
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  How to ReadEarly Indian Architecture FUNCTION What was the building used for? FORM What spatial / structural type is it? PATRONAGE Who financed, controlled or used it? TECHNOLOGY How was it built and maintained? CONTEXT How does it relate to city, landscape and movement? EVIDENCE What is excavated, preserved or reconstructed? SOURCE: Methodological synthesis: Oxford Bibliographies; UNESCO site documentation; JNU 23
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  Key Comparative Conclusions SOURCE:PG lecture synthesis 24 Religious and secular architecture are best understood as overlapping functional categories. Early Indian architecture includes monumental, residential, defensive, hydraulic, productive and educational environments. Urban planning can be as architecturally significant as temples and stupas. Archaeological evidence should be read together with function, social organization, patronage and technology. The history of early Indian architecture is therefore a history of built systems—not only iconic monuments.
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  Selected References Adam Hardy,“Architecture,” Oxford Bibliographies in Hinduism, Oxford University Press (2011). Naman P. Ahuja, The Development of Indian Temple Architecture and Sculpture A.D. 350–1350, Jawaharlal Nehru University course resource. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Dholavira: a Harappan City. Surendra Sahai, Indian Architecture: Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain (Prakash Books, 2006). SOURCE: Core sources used in the presentation 26
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  S E CU L A R R E L I G I O U S Thank You Types of Architecture: Religious & Secular Historical Account of Early Indian Architecture M.A. Semester I · Art & Architecture · Course I ️ 🏙️ ️ 🏛️ ☸️ ️ 🕉️ ⚜️ 🪨