Ir para o conteúdo principal
CarregarIdioma (PT)Suporte
NegóciosCelularMídias sociaisMarketingTecnologiaArte e fotografiaCarreirasDesignEducaçãoApresentações e oratóriaGoverno e ONGsSaúdeInternetDireitoLiderança e gerenciamentoIndústria automotivaEngenhariaSoftwareRecrutamento e RHVarejoVendasServiçosCiênciasPequenos negócios e empreendedorismoAlimentosMeio ambienteEconomia e finançasDados e análiseRelação com investidoresEsportesEspiritualNotícias e políticaTurismoAperfeiçoamento pessoalImóveisDiversão e humorSaúde e medicinaDispositivos e hardwareEstilo de vida
João Soares, profile picture
Carregado porJoão Soares
9 visualizações

Legado de Ana Firmino - investigadora em Agricultura Biológica

Legado de Ana Firmino

Meio ambiente◦
Baixar para ler offline
ANA FIRMINO: UN REGARD UNIQUE SUR L’ESPACE RURAL TEXTES COLLECTÉS DE 1988 À 2020 ANA FIRMINO: A SINGULAR VISION OF THE COUNTRYSIDE TEXTS COLLECTED FROM 1988 TO 2020 TEXTOS REUNIDOS (1988 - 2020) UM OLHAR SINGULAR SOBRE O ESPAÇO RURAL ANA FIRMINO
Coordenação da publicação digital Ebook Cecília Delgado, ceciliadelgado@fcsh.unl.pt; Dulce Pimentel, amdop@fcsh.unl.pt; Francesca Poggi, f.poggi@fcsh.unl.pt Edição CICS.NOVA – Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Socias - Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa Colégio Almada Negreiros UNL, Campus de Campolide – Lisboa, Portugal Financiamento Este trabalho é financiado por fundos nacionais através da FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., no âmbito do projecto «UIDB/04647/2020» do CICS.NOVA – Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais da Universidade Nova de Lisboa. ISBN 978-989-97344-5-6 DOI https://doi.org/10.34619/n6wf-7isk Língua Português, Francês e Inglês Design Inês Veiga, inesveiga@fa.ulisboa.pt Agradecimentos As coordenadoras agradecem a todos os editores, autores e coautores que gentilmente aceitaram a republicação dos manuscritos reunidos neste ebook. O nosso agradecimento ao Yves Cabannes pelas traduções para Francês e Inglês. Les coordinatrices remercient les rédacteurs, auteurs et coauteurs qui ont gracieusement accepté la réédition des travaux rassemblés dans ce livre électronique. Nos remerciements à Yves Cabannes pour les traductions française et anglaise. The coordinators extend their gratitude to all the editors, authors and coauthors who kindly accepted the reprinting of their original works gathered in this ebook. Our gratitude is extended to Prof Yves Cabannes for the French and English translations. Fotografias Marko Krevs, 2011, Gran Canaria, Ilhas Canárias, Espanha (Capa); Cornelia Steinhäuser, 2018, Galiza, Espanha (8); Francesca Poggi, 2018, Pampilhosa da Serra, Portugal (17); Laure Giroir, 2017, Kilema, Tanzânia (19); Marko Krevs, 2003, Andaluzia, Espanha (121); Marko Krevs, 2012, Açores, Portugal (123); Marko Krevs, 2003, Andaluzia, Espanha (249); Dulce Pimentel, 2019, Serpa, Alentejo, Portugal (251); Marko Krevs, 2011, Gran Canaria, Ilhas Canárias, Espanha (394); Marko Krevs, 2012, Açores, Portugal (396); Desconhecido, 2013, Local desconhecido (481); Desconhecido, 2009, Local desconhecido (482); Ana Firmino, 2018, Norte de Portugal (contracapa). Trabalho licenciado com Licença Creative Commons - Atribuição-NãoComercial-SemDerivações 4.0 Internacional (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) que permite copiar e redistribuir o material em qualquer suporte ou formato não comercial, desde que os editores sejam creditados se utilize a mesma licença. A atribuição deverá incluir a seguinte informação: Delgado, C., Pimentel, D. e Poggi, F. (eds) 2021, Ana Firmino: um olhar singular sobre o espaço rural; Textos Reunidos (1988-2020). CICS.NOVA – Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Socias - Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa.
3 498 ÍNDICE INDEX DES SUJETS TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. UM PREFÁCIO QUE É TAMBÉM UMA HOMENAGEM UNE PRÉFACE QUI EST AUSSI UN HOMMAGE A FOREWORD THAT IS ALSO A TRIBUTE 4 6 7 UM TRIBUTO À MEMÓRIA DA ANA: INTRODUÇÃO UN HOMMAGE À LA MÉMOIRE D’ANA: INTRODUCTION A TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF ANA: INTRODUCTION 9 13 15 DESENVOLVIMENTO SUSTENTÁVEL DO ESPAÇO RURAL DÉVELOPPEMENT DURABLE DES ZONES RURALES SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL SPACE 17 AGRICULTURA BIOLÓGICA AGRICULTURE BIOLOGIQUE ORGANIC FARMING SENSIBILIZAÇÃO AMBIENTAL, IDENTIDADE E CULTURA SENSIBILISATION À L’ENVIRONNEMENT, IDENTITÉ ET CULTURE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS, IDENTITY AND CULTURE TRANSIÇÃO ENERGÉTICA E ALTERAÇÕES CLIMÁTICAS TRANSITION ÉNERGÉTIQUE ET CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE ENERGY TRANSITION AND CLIMATE CHANGE A VOZ DA ANA LA VOIX D’ANA ANA’S VOICE 121 249 394 481
Português 4 498 UM PREFÁCIO QUE É TAMBÉM UMA HOMENAGEM Recebi o convite difícil, como toda a missão honrosa, de prefaciar este livro de homenagem à Ana Firmino, que certamente permi- tiria que a ela me referisse sem o título de Professora Catedrática. A herança de Ana Firmino ultrapassa em muito a sua actividade de professora e investigadora. O legado que nos deixa será sem- pre actual e sobreviverá ao passar dos tempos. É neste registo que se procura assinalar a sua marca com a publicação deste E-book, “Ana Firmino um olhar singular sobre o espaço rural - Textos reunidos (1988 - 2020)”, que junta um conjunto de artigos e duas entrevistas agrupados em quatro temáticas. Impressiona saber que este livro, que apenas assinala parte do seu legado, está repleto de reflexões profundas e densas, assentes num vasto conhecimento científico que dá conta dos debates sobre o desenvolvimento rural sustentável, os modos alternativos de produção agrícola e mais recentemente as novas formas de organização social. Mas o que mais me sensibiliza no seu vasto património é a sua reflexão em torno da sustentabilidade, que Ana Firmino define, algures numa entrevista, como “ética, amor HELENA SERRA Diretora do CICS.NOVA (Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais - Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa)
5 498 e solidariedade”. De um modo muito particular a Ana foi uma visionária, na forma como investigou, divulgou e se envolveu nas discussões relacionadas com as formas alternativas de produção agrícola, as questões agro-alimentares, os temas da energia e a ecologia da paisagem. Desde muito cedo escolheu o caminho da interdisciplinariedade, nomeadamente nas pontes que estabeleceu com a agronomia que sempre influenciou a sua reflexão em termos científicos. Esta ponte também lhe possibilitou um diálogo com agricultores e técnicos, que se reflecte no seu papel pioneiro nos temas da agricultura biológica em Portugal e a sua ligação a movimentos de consumidores e agricultores biológicos, bem como a fundação e participação em associações várias das quais destaco a Associação Portuguesa da Ecologia da Paisagem. Se a utopia por vezes se confunde com a realidade e se cons- titui enquanto lugar que (ainda) não existe, mas que queremos e devemos construir, o reflexo do legado da Ana Firmino, plas- mado neste livro, deixa-nos absolutamente tomados pela urgência de aprofundar outros tantos estudos que publicou. São estas as palavras que me ocorrem para caracterizar e homenagear a nossa Ana Firmino e a sua especialíssima circunstância. Helena Serra Lisboa, Setembro de 2020 PREFÁCIO Português
6 498 J’ai reçu la difficile invitation, comme toute mission honorable, de préfacer ce livre d’hommage à Ana Firmino, ce qui surement m’autorise certainement à l’évoquer sans son titre de Professeur Titulaire. Son héritage va bien au-delà de son activité d’enseignante et de chercheuse. Le patrimoine qu’elle nous lègue restera toujours d’actualité et survivra au passage du temps. C’est dans ce contexte que nous cherchons à rehausser son apport, par la publication de cet E-book, «Ana Firmino : un regard unique sur l’espace rural - Textes réunis (1988 - 2020)», qui rassemble un ensemble de textes ainsi que deux entretiens regroupés en quatre thèmes. Il est impressionnant de savoir que ce livre, qui ne souligne qu’une partie de son héritage, est riche de réflexions profondes et denses, basées sur une vaste connaissance scientifique qui rend compte des débats sur le développement rural durable, les modes alternatifs de production agricole et plus récemment les nouvelles formes d’organisation sociale. Mais ce qui me touche le plus dans son vaste héritage, c’est sa réflexion sur le développement durable, qu’Ana Firmino définit, lors d’un entretien, comme «l’éthique, l’amour et la solidarité». D’une manière très particulière, Ana était une visionnaire, dans sa façon de conduire ses recherches, de diffuser les résultats, et de s’impliquer dans les discussions liées aux formes alternatives de production agricole, aux questions agroalimentaires, aux questions énergétiques et à l’écologie du paysage. Dès son plus jeune âge, elle a choisi la voie de l’interdisciplinarité, notamment en construisant des passerelles avec l’agronomie qui a toujours influencé sa réflexion sur le plan scientifique. Cette passerelle lui a également ouvert la voie d’un dialogue fertile avec les agriculteurs et les techniciens, qui se reflète tant dans son rôle de pionnière des questions d’agriculture biologique au Portugal que dans ses liens avec les mouvements de consommateurs et d’agriculteurs biologiques, ou encore dans sa participation à la fondation de plusieurs associations, parmi lesquelles je souligne l’Association Portugaise d’Écologie du Paysage. Si l’utopie se confond parfois avec la réalité et se constitue comme un lieu qui n’existe pas (encore), mais que nous voulons et devons construire, le reflet de l’héritage d’Ana, incarné dans ce livre, nous laisse absolument subjuguées du fait de l’urgence d’approfondir les nombreuses autres études qu’elle a publiées [et qui ne sont pas contenues dans ce livre]. Ce sont les mots qui me viennent à l’esprit pour caractériser et honorer notre Ana Firmino dans cette circonstance si particulière. UNE PRÉFACE QUI EST AUSSI UN HOMMAGE HELENA SERRA Directrice du CICS.NOVA (Centre Interdisciplinaire des Sciences Sociales - Faculté des Sciences Sociales et Humaines, Universidade Nova de Lisboa) Lisbonne, septembre 2020 Français
7 498 A FOREWORD THAT IS ALSO A TRIBUTE HELENA SERRA Head of CICS.NOVA (Interdisciplinary Centre of Social Sciences - Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities of Universidade Nova de Lisboa) Lisbon, September 2020 English I received the challenging invitation, as any distinguished mission, to write a foreword to this book of tribute to Ana Firmino, which certainly allows me to evoke her without mentioning her title of Full Professor. Her legacy goes far beyond her activity as a professor and researcher. The heritage she bequeaths to us will always remain relevant and will survive the passage of time. It is in this context that we seek to highlight her contribution, through the publication of this ebook, Ana Firmino: a unique vision of the countryside- Texts collected from 1988 to 2020, which brings together a set of texts and two live interviews, organised around four themes. It is impressive to realise that this book, which highlights only part of her legacy, is rich in thoughtful and profound insights, based on a vast scientific knowledge that reflects her debates on sustainable rural development, alternative modes of agricultural production and more recently new forms of social organisation. But what moves me most within her broad heritage remains her reflections on sustainable development, which Ana Firmino defines, in an interview, as “ethics, love and solidarity”. In a very distinctive manner, Ana was a visionary, in the way she conducted her research, disseminated the results, and was involved in discussions related to alternative forms of agricultural production, agro-food and energy issues as well as landscape ecology. From an early age, she chose the path of interdisciplinarity, in particular by building bridges with agronomy, which has always influenced her thinking on a scientific level. This bridge has also opened the way for a fertile dialogue with farmers and technicians, which is reflected both in her pioneering role in organic farming matters in Portugal and in her links with the organic consumer and farming movements, as well as in her participation in the setting up of several associations, among which I highlight the Portuguese Association of Landscape Ecology. If utopia sometimes merges with reality and is made up as a place that does not (yet) exist, but which we want and must build, Ana’s legacy, embodied in this book, leaves us absolutely subjugated by the urgency of deepening the many other studies she has published and which are not contained in this book. These are the words that come to mind to distinguish and honour our Ana Firmino in this very special circumstance.
8 498
Português 9 498 Quando, no início da década de 1980, chegou à Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas (FCSH) da Universidade NOVA de Lisboa para integrar o grupo de jovens Assistentes da Professora Raquel Soeiro de Brito, no recém-criado Departamento de Geografia e Planeamento Regional, eram já bem vincadas as suas capacidades de trabalho e a curiosidade científica por temas da Geografia Rural, os quais, mais tarde, viria a aprofundar. Formada em Geografia (licenciatura concluída em 1981 e mestrado em 1984) pela Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa, é já enquanto Assistente na FCSH que, em 1986, decide realizar uma pós-graduação em “Rural Policy and Project Planning” no Instituto de Ciências Sociais de Haia (Holanda). As características do curso e a experiência proporcionada pelo tempo vivido na Holanda terão sido decisivos para o rumo que veio a seguir em termos científicos, incrementando também, a partir de então, os contactos com colegas de diversas universidades nos diferentes continentes, que manteve ao longo da vida. Os trabalhos para a tese de doutoramento levaram-na, no fi- nal dos anos 80 e seguintes, às terras do Ribatejo para estudar os UM TRIBUTO À MEMÓRIA DA ANA CECÍLIA DELGADO, DULCE PIMENTEL, FRANCESCA POGGI Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais (CICS.NOVA), Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas (NOVA FCSH)
INTRODUÇÃO Português 10 498 desafios da modernização da agricultura em Coruche. Era no campo, em diálogo com os agricultores, no debate de ideias e procura de soluções que encontrava sentido para o seu trabalho. Ao longo dos anos foram numerosas as viagens em Portugal, milhares os quilómetros percorridos ao volante do seu automó- vel, mas também em viagem por outros países, cujas paisagens fixou com o auxílio da inseparável máquina fotográfica. Participou em vários projetos europeus, com atividades desenvolvidas na Europa e na Ásia, tendo desempenhado, entre 2012 e 2016, as funções de “co-chair” da Comissão de Sustenta- bilidade dos Sistemas Rurais da União Geográfica Internacional. Com o seu trabalho granjeou reconhecimento e estabeleceu fortes laços de amizade entre os seus pares. O entusiasmo com que abraçava novas ideias e novos projetos levou-a a assumir a direção de associações pioneiras em Portugal, nomeadamente a Associação Portuguesa de Ecologia da Paisagem e a Federação Portuguesa de Agricultura Social. É ainda de mencionar a forte ligação que manteve, desde a sua juventude, com a Alemanha, tanto por razões científicas como sentimentais. Quis o acaso que fossem alemães, ou tivessem alguma relação com o país, alguns dos seus amigos mais íntimos, mas também as origens familiares poderão ter influenciado este gosto, a forma de trabalhar e a determinação em aprender uma mão cheia de idiomas. Resumir num volume único cerca de quatro décadas, de uma trajetória tão variada e rica, dedicadas ao ensino e investigação não se afigura tarefa simples. Os textos reunidos nesta compilação são o tributo possível ao seu percurso académico, desde a sua tese de Mestrado defendida em 1984 e publicada em 1988 até à Primavera de 2020, quando nos deixou de forma inesperada. Para reunir este conjunto de 46 textos recorremos à triangulação de 11 repositórios de artigos
INTRODUÇÃO Português 11 498 científicos1 . No conjunto, estas fontes possibilitaram listar mais de 60 publicações. Foi, no entanto, impossível aceder eletroni- camente, ou através de meios físicos, à totalidade das suas publicações, pelo que reunimos apenas 46 textos num conjunto que inclui artigos científicos, atas de congressos, capítulos de livros e os resumos das suas teses de mestrado e de doutoramento. As circunstâncias do desaparecimento da Ana Firmino impe- diram a colocação nos repositórios das publicações referentes ao ano de 2020, pelo que tomamos a liberdade de as incluir nesta publicação. De modo a facilitar a leitura deste tributo, que, embora simbólico, é significativo em relação ao número de páginas – 498, optou-se por agrupar as publicações em quatro separadores temáticos: 1. Desenvolvimento Sustentável do Espaço Rural; 2.Agricultura Biológica; 3. SensibilizaçãoAmbiental, Identidade e Cultura; 4. Transição Energética e Alterações Climáticas. As dificuldades inerentes a uma mente brilhante e holística – não necessariamente sistemática – aconselham a que esses separadores sejam encarados como uma entrada possível e não como caixas fechadas. Ao longo do tempo, a Ana Firmino publicou essencialmente como autora única, entre outras razões, porque foi pioneira em Portugal na introdução, à data (1986), de novas temáticas como a Agricultura Biológica. Mais recentemente, verifica-se um conjunto significativo de publicações em coautoria, não sendo ela a autora principal. Considerámos que estes artigos deveriam fazer parte desta compilação por serem, mais uma vez, demonstrativos do seu enorme altruísmo, humildade e sentido de solidariedade que animavam a Ana na sua vida privada e académica. A estrutura da presente publicação reflete o percurso de exploração científica, reflexão prospetiva, sensibilização e apren- 1 Lista de fontes utilizadas: Orcid; Scopus; NOVA Research; Academia Europaea; ResearchGate; Google Scholar; Mendeley; EchoGéo; CICS.NOVA - membros integrados; RUN UNL da o seu CV disponível online.
12 498 dizagem constante que caracterizou o pensamento e o exercício da atividade da Ana Firmino ao longo da sua vida. Esperamos que a sua leitura seja uma viagem no tempo e nos diferentes luga- res que tocaram o seu olhar singular de uma “Geógrafa de Olhos e de Pé” que amava o Campo e nele encontrava a inspiração para elaborar perspetivas próprias e valorizar temas pouco visíveis, ou à data polémicos. O tempo veio provar que tinha razão. Ana Firmino, a Professora Catedrática que cativou gerações de alunos na NOVA, nunca deixou de ser um espírito jovem e entusiasta, frontal, por vezes controversa, mas sempre com um grande sentido de ética e de rigor numa vida que viveu de forma plena e com inteira dedicação à academia, aos amigos, e às causas que abraçou. Cecília Delgado, Dulce Pimentel, Francesca Poggi Lisboa, Janeiro de 2021 INTRODUÇÃO Português
13 498 Lorsque, au début des années 1980, elle est arrivée à la Faculté des Sciences Sociales et Humaines – FCSH - Université NOVA de Lisbonne pour rejoindre le groupe de jeunes assistants et assistantes de la Professeure Raquel Soeiro de Brito, au sein du Département de Géographie et de Planification régionale récemment créé, ses compétences profes-sionnelles et sa curiosité scientifique pour des sujets liés à la Géographie Rurale, qu›elle allait plus tard approfondir, étaient déjà bien affirmées. Diplômée en Géographie, ayant obtenu sa licence en 1981 et sa maîtrise en 1984 à la Faculté des lettres de l’Université de Lisbonne, elle décide de poursuivre en 1986 un troisième cycle, alors qu’elle est assistante à la FCSH, en Politique Rurale et Planification de Projets à l’Institut des Sciences Sociales de La Haye (Pays-Bas). Les contenus des enseignements ainsi que l’expérience acquise lors de son séjour en Hollande seront déterminants dans ses choix scientifiques futurs. Ce long séjour, lui permettra en outre d’élargir ses contacts avec des collègues d’autres universités dans le monde, qu’elle entretiendra tout au long de sa vie. Ses travaux de thèse de doctorat l’ont amené, à partir de la fin des années 80 sur le terrain du Ribatejo pour étudier les défis liés à la modernisation de l’agriculture, en particulier dans le village de Coruche. C’est sur le terrain, dans le dialogue avec les agriculteurs, dans les débats d’idées et dans la recherche de solutions qu’elle trouvait que son travail faisait sens. Au fil des ans, elle a effectué de nombreux voyages, parcourant des milliers de kilomètres en voiture, au Portugal ainsi que dans d’autres pays, mais aussi à travers d’autres pays, dont elle immortalisait les paysages, à l’aide de son inséparable appareil photographique. Elle a été partie prenante de nombreux projets européens, qui la conduiront à développer des activités en Europe et en Asie, puis entre 2012 et 2016, à devenir co-présidente de la Commission pour le développement durable des systèmes ruraux1 , au sein de l’Union Géographique Internationale2 . Grâce à son travail, elle a gagné une grande reconnaissance de ses pairs avec lesquels elle établira de solides liens d’amitié. L’enthousiasme avec lequel elle adoptait des idées neuves et des projets nouveaux l’a amené à prendre la tête d’associations pionnières au Portugal, à savoir l’Association Portugaise d’Écologie du Paysage ainsi que la Fédération Portugaise d’Agriculture Sociale3 . Il convient également de mentionner le lien étroit qu’elle a entretenu, dès sa jeunesse, avec l’Allemagne, tant pour des raisons scientifiques que sentimentales. C’est peut-être le hasard qui explique que certains de ses amis les plus intimes étaient des allemands parmi ceux qui Français 1 Comissão de Sustentabilidade dos Sistemas Rurais 2 União Geográfica Internacional 3 Respectivement Associação Portuguesa de Ecologia da Paisagem et Federação Portuguesa de Agricultura Social. UN HOMMAGE À LA MÉMOIRE D’ANA CECÍLIA DELGADO, DULCE PIMENTEL; FRANCESCA POGGI Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais (CICS.NOVA), Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas (NOVA FCSH) Lisbon, Janvier 2020
14 498 entretenaient des relations proches avec le Portugal, mais c’est peut-être aussi, ses origines familiales, sa manière de travailler, et sa volonté d’apprendre de nouvelles langues qui expliquent cette proximité. Tenter de résumer en un seul volume quatre décennies d’une trajectoire d’enseignement et de recherche aussi variée et aussi riche ne pouvait être une tâche facile! Les textes réunis dans cette compilation sont l’hommage possible à son parcours universitaire, depuis sa thèse de maîtrise publiée en 1988 jusqu’au printemps 2020, lorsqu’elle nous a quitté de manière inattendue. Pour rassembler cet ensemble de textes, nous avons consulté et croisé les données de 11 sites de dépôts d’articles scientifiques qui nous ont permis de répertorier plus de 60 publications. Cependant, il a été impossible d’accéder à l’ensemble de ce corpus par voie électronique ou physique, de sorte que nous n’avons rassemblé que 46 textes: articles scientifiques, actes de congrès, chapitres de livres et résumés des thèses de maîtrise et de doctorat. Les circonstances de la disparition d’Ana ont empêché le dépôt de ses travaux pour l’année 2020, et nous avons donc pris la liberté de les inclure dans cette publication. Afin de faciliter la lecture de cet hommage, qui, bien que symbolique, est significatif du fait des 500 pages ici rassemblées, les publications ont été organisées en quatre volets thématiques: 1. Développement durable de l’espace rural ; 2. Agriculture biologique ; 3. Sensibilisation environnementale, identité et culture; 4. Transition énergétique et changements climatiques. Les difficultés inhérentes à l’appréhension de son esprit brillant et holistique, mais pas nécessairement systématique, nous amènent à proposer ces différents volets comme des entrées possibles et non pas comme des cases isolées les unes des autres. Au fil des années, Ana a publié essentiellement en tant qu’auteur unique, du fait en particulier qu’elle a été pionnière au Portugal dans l’introduction, dès 1986, de nouveaux thèmes comme, par exemple, l’agriculture biologique. Plus récemment, un nombre important de ses publications sont en association avec d’autres, et pas nécessairement comme auteur principal. Nous avons considéré que ces articles devaient également faire partie de cette compilation car ils sont, une fois encore, la preuve de l’ altruisme, de l’ humilité et du sens de la solidarité qui animaient Ana tant dans sa vie privée qu’universitaire. La structure de cette publication reflète le cheminement d’exploration scientifique, de réflexion prospective, de prise de conscience et d’apprentissage constant qui a caractérisé sa pensée et son activité tout au long de sa vie. Nous espérons que sa lecture soit un voyage dans le temps et dans les différents espaces qui ont touché sa vision unique de «géographe du regard avec les pieds sur terre» qui aimait la campagne et y trouvait l’inspiration pour élaborer ses propres perspectives et valoriser des thèmes peu visibles, ou à l’époque controversés. Le temps lui a donné raison. Ana Firmino, cette professeure titulaire qui a captivé l’attention de générations d’étudiants et d’étudiantes à l’Université NOVA de Lisbonne, n’a jamais cessé d’être un esprit jeune et enthousiaste, frontal, parfois controversé, mais toujours avec un grand sens de l’éthique et de la rigueur dans une vie qu’elle vécu pleinement, dans un dévouement sans bornes à l’académie, à ses ami(e)s et aux causes qu’elle a épousées. INTRODUCTION Français
15 498 English When, at the beginning of the 1980s, she arrived at the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences - FCSH - NOVA University in Lisbon to join the group of young assistants to Professor Raquel Soeiro de Brito, in the newly created Department of Geography and Regional Planning, her professional skills and scientific curiosity for subjects related to Rural Geography, which she would later deepen, were already well established. Ana graduated in Geography, having obtained her Bachelor’s degree in 1981 and her Master’s degree in 1984 at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Lisbon. While working as an assistant at the FCSH, she decided in 1986 to pursue doctoral studies in Rural Policy and Project Planning at the Institute of Social Sciences in The Hague (Netherlands). The contents of her teaching as well as the experience acquired during her stay in Holland will be decisive in her future scientific choices. This long stay enabled her as well to broaden her contacts with colleagues from other universities |around the world, ties she maintained throughout her life. Her doctoral studies led her from the late 1980s onwards to the Ribatejo region to study the challenges of the modernisation of agriculture, and in particular in the village of Coruche. It was in the field, in dialogue with farmers, in the debates of ideas and in the search for solutions that she believed her work made sense. Over the years, she made many trips, driving thousands of kilometres, in Portugal and beyond, immortalising landscapes with the help of her inseparable camera. She has been involved in many European projects, which led her to develop activities in Europe and Asia, and between 2012 and 2016, to co-chair the Sustainable Development of Rural Systems Commission, within the International Geographical Union. Thanks to her work, she gained widespread recognition from her peers, with whom she established strong bonds of friendship. Her enthusiasm in adopting new ideas and new projects led her to take the lead of pioneering associations in Portugal, namely the Portuguese Association of Landscape Ecology and the Portuguese Federation of Social Agriculture. Trying to sum up in a single volume four decades of such a varied and rich teaching and research trajectory could not be an easy task! The texts gathered in this compilation are a possible tribute to her academic career, from her master’s thesis published in 1988 to the spring of 2020, when she unexpectedly left us. To gather this set of texts, we consulted and cross-referenced data from 11 scientific articles repository sites, which enabled us to list more than 60 publications. However, it resulted impossible to access the entire corpus electronically or physically, and so we were able to gather 46 texts only, spanning from scientific A TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF ANA CECÍLIA DELGADO, DULCE PIMENTEL; FRANCESCA POGGI Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais (CICS.NOVA), Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas (NOVA FCSH) Lisbon, Janvier 2020
16 498 articles, to conference proceedings, book chapters, two live interviews and summaries of her master’s and PhD theses. The circumstances of Ana’s demise prevented the repository of her works for the year 2020, and we have therefore taken the liberty of including them in this publication. In order to facilitate the reading of this tribute, which, although symbolic, is significant when considering about 500 pages gathered in the present book, the publications have been organised around four themes: 1. sustainable development of rural areas; 2. organic agriculture; 3. environmental awareness, identity and culture; and 4. Energy transition and climate change. The difficulties inherent in grasping her brilliant and holistic, but not necessarily systematic, mind led us to propose these different strands as possible entries and not as boxes isolated one from the other. Over the years, Ana has published mainly as a sole author, since she was a pioneer in Portugal in introducing new themes, such as organic farming, as early as 1986. More recently, a significant number of her publications are co-authored, and she rarely remained as lead author. We considered that these articles should also be part of this compilation as they are, once again, a testimony of the altruism, humility and sense of solidarity that Ana demonstrated both in her private and academic life. The structure of this publication reflects the lifelong journey of scientific exploration, forward thinking, awareness and constant learning that distinguished her thinking and activity throughout her life. We hope that reading it will provide a journey through time and different spaces that touched her unique vision as a “geographer of the gaze with her feet on the ground” who loved the countryside as a source of inspiration for developing her own perspectives and highlighting topics that were hardly visible or controversial in those days. Time proved she was right. Ana Firmino remains a Tenured Professor who has captivated the attention of generations of students at NOVA University in Lisbon, and who never ceased to be a young and enthusiastic, headstrong, sometimes controversial spirit, but always with a great sense of ethics and rigour in a life she lived to the full, with boundless dedication to the Academy, to her friends and to the causes she endorsed. INTRODUCTION English
17 498 1. DÉVELOPPEMENT DURABLE DES ZONES RURALES 1. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL SPACE DESENVOLVIMENTO SUSTENTÁVEL DO ESPAÇO RURAL 1.
18 498 1 Firmino, A., & Poggi, F. (2019). Olive groves in Alqueva – new territories, old challenges. Tackling with Societal, Technological and Climate Changes in Peripheral Territories, 1–6. 2 Firmino, A. (2018). CSA in Portugal: Missing links within urban agriculture. in Delgado, C., Firmino, A., Pires, I. (coordenação), Connections and Missing Links within Urban Agriculture, Food and Food Systems: Proceedings of the International Scientific Event, 26 – 27 April 2018, Lisbon, Portugal, 32–35. 3 Poggi, F., Firmino, A., & Amado, M. (2018). Clusters municipais de bioenergia: Um contributo para a prevenção de incêndios florestais. Finisterra, 53(108), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.18055/Finis13717 4 Firmino, A. (2016). From agropolis to ecopolis, what changed?: Geographical approaches to food issues. GeoProgress Journal, 23(1), 9–28. 5 Firmino, A. (2015). Stones: Functionalities and sustainable landscapes. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 10(3), 189–196. 6 Firmino, A. (2015). Consumidores e Consumo em Transição. Valores da Geografia. Atas do X Congresso Da Geografia Portuguesa, 469–474. 7 Firmino, A. (2010). Representing and Communicating Rural Futures through 3D Landscape Visualizations—Experiences from the RUFUS Project. Representing and Communicating Rural Futures through 3D Landscape Visualizations – Experiences from the RUFUS Project, 261–268. 8 Firmino, A. (2004). A casa ecológica: Inovação e desenvolvimento sustentável. Revista GeoInova DGPR/UNL, 10, 101–113. 9 Firmino, A. (1999). Agriculture and landscape in Portugal. Landscape and Urban Planning, 46(1–3), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(99)00049-3 SEPARADOR 1 DESENVOLVIMENTO SUSTENTÁVEL DO ESPAÇO RURAL
19 498 1. DÉVELOPPEMENT DURABLE DES ZONES RURALES 1. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL SPACE
20 498 Firmino, A., & Poggi, F. (2019). OLIVE GROVES IN ALQUEVA – NEW TERRITORIES, OLD CHALLENGES. Tackling with Societal, Technological and Climate Changes in Peripheral Territories, 1–6.
21 498 Extended abtract EXTENDED ABSTRACT Title: Olive groves in Alqueva – new territories, old challenges Authors and e-mail: Ana Firmino (am.firmino@fcsh.unl.pt) Francesca Poggi (f.poggi@fcsh.unl.pt) Department: Department of Geography and Regional Planning University: NOVA de Lisboa, NOVAFcsh Subject area: (S07 Entrepreneurship and territorial innovations) JEL codes: Keywords: (olive groves, intensification, landgrabbing, sustainability, circular economy, resilience) 1. Introduction: Olive groves have been an important element in the Portuguese landscape, culture, gastronomy and economy. The country is particularly dependent on this crop, since olive oil is the main fat used in the Mediterranean diet. Besides olive trees are resistant to severe edaphic-climatic conditions (stony soils, some varieties are resistant to drought). They can be found in remote areas along the border, occupying marginal soils in small farms, eventually combined with wine production and rural tourism. They resisted the abandon during the 60´s and 70’s, period during which many Portuguese migrated. These traditional olive groves present a lower productivity, but they are diversified in varieties and they play an important role for carbon sequestration. Alqueva is the largest artificial water reservoir in Western Europe (4150 Hm3). It is located at the border with Spain and receives water from Guadiana river. This multifunctional project has been contested since the beginning due to the negative impacts either environmental or social and heavy capital investment. Notwithstanding the rainfall decline its irrigated area keeps being extended, and new intensive and super intensive olive plantations occupy new areas in Alentejo, challenging the most negative perspectives. The paper draws mainly on the intensive and super intensive olive groves, which together with other crops have been planted in the Alqueva region and discusses the sustainability of these plantations located in an area highly susceptible to desertification, when scenarios for 2080-2100 point to a large increase in temperatures and drop in rainfall. Episodically some owners of olive groves express doubts about the possibility to continue with their super intensive plantations, due to the long periods of
22 498 drought, and face the possibility to go back to less intensive techniques, not so dependent on irrigation. There is an ongoing campaign against the super intensive olive groves, blamed by left parties such as “The Green”, for endangering the populations due to the high use of agrochemicals, which also contaminate soils and watersheds. They demand a buffer zone to protect villages and schools. Nevertheless, as it so often happens, the conclusions of different research studies are contradictory, and this kind of projects keep being supported by the European Union. Landgrabbing also threatens the sustainability of the plantations, since many owners are foreigners and not always deal with agriculture (building societies, for instance). In 2018, 35% of the investment in olive orchards in the irrigated perimeter of Alqueva, belonged to Spaniards. This research is based on literature review and interviews with local stakeholders such as olive grove owners, technicians, workers, local population and politicians. Finally, it will be argued that urgent measures need to be implemented to avoid the depletion of Alentejo’s fertility fund, which was highly affected in the thirties with the Wheat Campaign. In this vein, best agricultural practices will be presented to illustrate projects which promote the local heritage, contribute to an added-value of the production and mitigate the effects of climate change, being simultaneously economically feasible and more human friendly. 2. Climate Change and Irrigation sprawl: Most authors project decreases in rainfall in Iberia due to climate change (Ekström et al., 2007; Guerreiro et al., 2017; Hingray et al., 2007; Kilsby et al., 2007). According to IPCC (2018) seventeen of the eighteen hottest years ever recorded have occurred since the year 2000. These studies are in line with the previsions made by the European Union, which pointed out for less water availability, higher risk of drought, heat spells, higher risk of soil erosion and decrease in the growing season and crop yields in the Southern countries of Europe, which may cause a decrease up to 50% by 2050 in non- irrigated crops like wheat, corn and sugar beet. For the European Environmental Agency (EEA, 2019) this could result in substantial drop in farm income by 2050 and consequent land abandonment until the end of the century. Studies carried out by Santos (2001) previewed an increase in the temperatures for the period between 2080-2100, which are already happening today. In what concerns rainfall Santos speaks about a reduction of 40mm per decade in South Portugal, since the 60’s, accounting for less 200mm rain/year today (Santos, 2017). Schulp et al (2008) quoting Bergkamp et al (1997) reinforce these studies, reporting annual rainfall decline in Alentejo (South Portugal) since the 30’s.
23 498 Fig. 2 – National water stockage in September 2019, (SNIRH, 2019) Fig. 1 – Climate Summary September 2019, (IPMA, 2019) Fig. 3 – Evolution of the Alqueva Basin water storage in the Hydrological Years 2017/18 and 2018/19, (SNIRH, 2019) The situation of extreme and severe drought in some river basins in Portugal, in August 2019, confirms these results, as shown in figure 1 (brown colors correspond to extreme, severe, moderate and weak drought). The Alqueva irrigated perimeter is in an area affected by extreme and severe drought. The national water stockage in September 2019 (in blue), by hydrographic basin, presents averages below those registered in September, between 1990/91 and 2017/18 (in gray) except in the basins of Cávado, Douro and Mondego (in North) and Arade (in South) (figure 2). In this context, trends in the Alqueva Basin water stockage show relevant fluctuations during the period between October 2017 and September 2019. (figure 3). Blue: observed stockage Green: Average
24 498 Contrarily to what would be expected under these conditions the sprawl of new plantations has not stopped, and the irrigated perimeter will even be enlarged with 50 000 new hectares (project to be concluded in 2022, EDIA, 2018). Besides protocols signed on the 17.2.2018, between EDIA and Waters of Portugal, foresee that in the framework of the Project “Water Supply from Alqueva to Sines”, more water will be needed to supply the population and the important industrial pole of Sines, on the western coastline of Alentejo. 3. Olive groves in Alqueva Irrigation Perimeter: Olive groves are the most important crop in the 120,000 ha irrigated perimeters of Alqueva (figure 4). In 2018 it occupied about 52,000 ha, i. e. 59% of this area. This crop represented almost 1/3 of the total olive production area in Alentejo (177,543 ha, producing 602,577 Ton) and 1/7 of the area in Portugal (358,886 ha, totalizing 876,215 Ton) (EDIA, 2018). The intensive (200 trees/ha) and super intensive (1.975 trees/ha) plantations were introduced by the Spaniards, who found in Alqueva the ideal edaphoclimatic conditions, abundant water at a cheap price and large farms (latifundia) with adequate soils and much cheaper than in Spain (in 2008 prices in Alentejo were around 6000€/ha; in Spain 24.678€/ha). Besides, in 2010-2011, the rural workers in Alentejo got a wage of 32 € for 8 hours of work; in the province of Jaén, Spain, the rural worker would get 50€ for a journey of 6 hours and 30 minutes. Other factors that attracted the Spaniards investors were the similar culture and idiom, the proximity without borders and the support given by the Portuguese government, using the fonds offered by the European Union for programs dealing with rural development. Sánchez Martínez, J. D. et al (2012) who present these data, talk about the neo-landscapes of olive groves in Alentejo. Fig.4 – Alqueva Irrigation perimeter (EDIA, 2018:106) There is a growing demand in the international markets for olive oil, which justifies the interest in the crop, namely by important building enterprises, avid to make profits
25 498 quickly and easily. Together with real estate firms and banks, some foreign groups have made large investments which can be considered as land grabbing. In 2018, 61% of the investments in olive groves in the Alqueva irrigation perimeter were Portuguese, 35% Spanish and 1.59% British. But there are capitals from so distant countries such as Saudi Arabia, Brazil and Chile, as well as Germany, Denmark, France, Netherlands, Ukraine and Switzerland (EDIA, 2018). The largest world player in producing and marketing olive oil is Sovena, a Portuguese Group owning 10.000 ha in Alqueva and that built in Ferreira do Alentejo one of the largest olive mills in the world. Fig. 5 - New super intensive olive plantations near Redondo The rewarding price of olive oil in the world market has supported the accentuated growth registered in the area occupied by olive groves in the irrigated perimeter of Alqueva, as shown in the graph below, which is supposed to continue if the government will not impose restrictions, as discussed in the last chapter. 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Fig. 6 - Evolution in the area occupied by olive groves in Alqueva Irrigation Perimeter (Ha) (EDIA, 2018)
26 498 4. Sustainable Practices and Technologies As we have seen the European agricultural sector risks to lose millions of Euros with climate change. There are around 5 million hectares of olive plantations in the European Union. Thus, it is important to invest in research to develop practices and technologies, which may contribute to the success in the sector. Next, we present some initiatives which may achieve this goal. One of the diseases causing apprehension among the world’s main producers of olive oil, such as Spain, Italy and Greece, is called XF (Xylella fastidiosa) and is spreading due to the milder winters, as Teresa Carrillo, coordinator of the project LIFE RESILIENCE, explains. The project aims at implementing sustainable practices and technologies “on pilot olive (and almond) plots in Spain, Italy, and Portugal, covering 250 ha in total. Measures such as cover crops and reduced tillage will help to increase resilience to XF and future climate change impacts by: • increasing biodiversity; • improving plant and soil health; • optimising inputs; and • lowering chemical exposure”. The project is also creating new varieties of olive trees, resistant to Xylella fastidiosa and will deliver a Handbook of best practices, aiming at increasing the resilience of olive trees to pathogens without reducing yields. The expected outcomes by 2020 are: • “a 30% increase in soil and plant health; • a 20% reduction in water consumption in olive fields; and • a 60% reduction in production costs” (EEA, 2019)(LIFE RESILIENCE, 2019). An important contribution of the project “to reverse the trend of CO2 losses, erosion and desertification” is achieved through the increase in the rate of “soil organic matter in the root zone of the olive trees which not only “contributes to long term storage of carbon removed, it also plays a significant role in improving tree health, and the uptake of minerals and water. These are critical factors for trees under climate change-induced stress” (EEA, 2019). The project OLIVECLIMA points shredded pruning waste as an important practice to return organic matter from olive trees to the soil. According to Rodrigues et al (2012, 75) in a traditional dry farming orchard, a 10 years old tree may sequestrate 9,71 kg/tree-1, representing 2,0 t C ha -1. But if the soil was improved in up to 1% more organic matter, it may sequestrate 14t C ha-1. Composting, weed management, non-soil tillage and new pruning methods are also encouraged. OLIVECLIMA is a project aiming at developing a certification for the net carbon balance, enhancing an eco-label for climate-friendly olive oil, which can be an added-value for the farmers (EEA, 2019) (Olive Clima, 2019). LIFE DESERT-ADAPT is developing a ‘desertification adaptation model’ (DAM) in some areas of Italy, Spain and Portugal. DAM is based on three pillars: Economic Adaptation (diversifying, using mainly local species suitable to climate extremes, avoiding methods that cause land degradation, and avoiding intensive agriculture in the most fragile areas); Environmental Adaptation (holistic approach combining methods such as inter-planting, reforestation, water- saving technologies and soil protection to increase resilience. As well as improved biodiversity, the beneficiary expects to achieve an average net carbon removal of one
27 498 tonne of CO₂ per hectare using the new model); and Social Adaptation (local population might work part time on DAM development or on a voluntary basis in exchange for some of the produced income, for example, or organise and lead guided eco-tourism) (adapted from EEA, 2019). This project is running until 2022 and intends to develop “eight new sources of income for farmers: sustainable agro-products and ecosystem services adapted to projected changes in climate. These are expected to generate an extra €100 per hectare per year” (EEA, 2019). Professor Castaldi is responsible for this project which aims at showing “the effectiveness of a sustainable and holistic framework of land management that can at the same time preserve land integrity and quality, generate income and support social inclusion”, as well as making “farmers less dependent on CAP funding as the sole solution to low productivity in areas under desertification risk (EEA, 2019, 21)(DESERT ADAPT, 2019). Finally, in order to achieve a circular economy and fight back some of the environmental impacts related to the olive processing, such as the organic residues, several bioproducts might be produced (biogas for example) through the co-digestion of organic leftovers (olive mill wastewaters and olive pomace) (SAFA et al, 2017). 5. Discussion and conclusions The intensive and super intensive olive plantations in the Alqueva irrigation perimeter created a neo-landscape which challenges the carrying capacity of the local ecosystems, aggravated by the long and severe drought periods. EDIA (2019), the enterprise that manages Alqueva dam, acknowledges these drought conditions, more precisely in the influence area of Alqueva and in July 2019 determined emergence measures to supply water to cattle and crops. Is this a sign of Portugal becoming in 2080 a desert in Europe, as questioned by Firmino (2018)? The plantations are starting to be contested since it is discussible that olive groves, which have a high impact on the soil for the heavy machinery used, water consumed, despite the dip irrigation, as well as chemicals launched in the environment, might be supported by European Funds. Fig. 7 - Green Party protests near Santa Suzana, Alentejo (April, 2019)
28 498 Some political parties, such as the “Green” also contest these kinds of plantations blaming them for being malefic for the human health and environment (figure 7). Quercus – an environmental association, demands from the government the interdiction to create more intensive plantations and CNA – National Confederation of Agriculture, supports their position (inforCNA, 2019). Today the intensive/superintensive olive plantations represent 20.000 ha in the whole country and are to be found mainly in Alentejo. Their presence not only changed the landscape but also introduced varieties that are not traditional. Besides approximately each 10 years all the trees must be pulled out so that new might be replanted, to guarantee the high productivity of the olive groves. This all plays against the guidelines produced for an ecological production, as defended in projects such as Oliveclima and LIFE Desert-Adapt, presented above. Many new plantations have emerged in recent years, which are not yet producing in full. Some farmers also fear that a surplus in the production may affect negatively the price in the market. In a recent debate in the Portuguese Parliament some measures were announced in order to eliminate supports to the intensive and superintensive plantations and delimitate the areas aiming at protecting the biodiversity; it was also decided to study the impact of the olive groves sprawl. Nevertheless, as Covas et al (2008:3) wrote, we are facing a procedure of “asymmetric globalization” where the global is developing faster than the local, “deterritorialization” is faster than “reterritorialization” and “delocalization” goes faster than “relocalization”. In this complex framework, associated with climate change and a lack of place-based policy making, our final remark appoints to an urgent need for good sense and sustainable interventions so that Alentejo does not become a desert under the lemma of intensive/superintensive olive plantations. References: COVAS, A. et al (2008) A “agrocultura glocal”: os produtos “glocais”, amigos do mundo rural, Paper presented at Colóquio Ibérico de Estudos Rurais: Cultura, Inovação e Território, Coimbra, 2008 (Covas_Agroglocal.pdf) Accessed on the 5.12.2018 DESERT ADAPT. (2019). DESERT ADAPT. Retrieved 14 September 2019, from http://www.desert-adapt.it/index.php/en/ EDIA. (2018). Agricultural Yearbook. Retrieved from https://www.edia.pt/wp- content/uploads/2019/05/anuario_agricola-alqueva_2018.pdf EDIA (2019) Edital: Medidas de Combate à Seca na Área de Influência do EFMA. Abeberamento do Gado e Fornecimento de Água para Rega, EDIA, Beja EEA (2019) Ready, steady, green! European Commission, Environment Directorate- General, EU, doi: 10.2779/986390 EKSTRÖM, M. et al (2007) Regional climate model data used within the SWURVE project 2: Addressing uncertainty in regional climate model data for five European case study areas, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11 (3) (2007), pp. 1085-1096
29 498 FIRMINO, A. (2018) Portugal 2080: a desert in Europe? In Infinite rural systems in a finite planet: bridging gaps towards sustainability, Coord. Valerià Paül I Carril et al (2018) Santiago de Compostela, Spain, p. 395-403 GUERREIRO, S. et al (2017), Dry getting drier – The future of transnational river basins in Iberia, Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, Volume 12, August 2017, Pages 238-252 HINGRAY, B. et al (2007) Development of probability distributions for regional climate change from uncertain global mean warming and an uncertain scaling relationship, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11 (3) (2007), pp. 1097-1114 inforCNA. (2019). É o fim dos apoios ao olival superintensivo? Retrieved 17 June 2019, from http://www.inforcna.pt/post/e-o-fim-dos-apoios-ao-olival-superintensivo/1106 IPMA (2019) Resumo Climatológico, IPMA, (accessed on the 5.9.2019) http://www.ipma.pt/resources.www/docs/im.publicacoes/edicoes.online/20191007/mksI BXytVMvQbOBpemRr/cli_20190901_20190930_pcl_mm_co_pt.pdf IPCC (2018) Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 ºC, https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ KILSBY, C. et al (2007) Hydrological impacts of climate change on the Tejo and Guadiana Rivers, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11 (3) (2007), pp. 1175-1189 LIFE RESILIENCE. (2019). LIFE RESILIENCE. Retrieved 14 September 2019, from http://www.liferesilience.eu/ Olive Clima. (2019). Olive Clima. Retrieved 4 October 2019, from http://www.oliveclima.eu/en/ RODRIGUES, M. A. et al (2012) Sequestro de carbono no olival: mito ou realidade?, Livro de Resumos do VI Simpósio Nacional de Olivicultura, Mirandela, 15/17 Novembro, 2012 SAFA, S. et al (2017). Olive oil production sector: Environmental effects and sustainability challenges, in Galanakis, C. (Editor) Olive Mill Waste: Recent advances for the Sustainable Management, Edition: 1st, Chapter: 1, Publisher: Elsevier- Academic Press, pp.1-28, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-805314-0.00001-7 SÁNCHEZ-MARTÍNEZ, J. D. et al (2012) Olivares de alta densidad alentejanos y Olivares tradicionales andaluces: un análisis comparado, in Royé, D. et al (coord.), XIII Coloquio Ibérico de Geografía: Respuestas de la Geografía Ibérica a la crisis actual, Santiago de Compostela, Meubook, págs. 1509-1518 SANTOS, F. D. (2001) SIAM, Gradiva, Lisboa
30 498 SANTOS, F. D. (2017) Portugal enfrenta hoje secas mais frequentes e prolongadas, https://www.publico.pt/2017/11/09/ciencia/noticia/portugal-enfrenta-hoje-secas-mais- frequentes-e-prolongadas-1791920 SCHULP, C. et al (2008) Future Carbon Sequestration in Europe – Effects of land use change, in Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment, 127, September, 2008 (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223594778)
31 498 Firmino, A. (2018). CSA IN PORTUGAL: MISSING LINKS WITHIN URBAN AGRICULTURE. In Delgado, C., Firmino, A., Pires, I. (coordenação), Connections and Missing Links within Urban Agriculture, Food and Food Systems: Proceedings of the International Scientific Event, 26 – 27 April 2018, Lisbon, Portugal, 32–35. Link da publicação aqui
32 498 32 32 PROVE vegetable box in Loures, Photo: Ana Firmino, 2014
33 498 33 CSA in Portugal – missing links within urban agriculture Firmino, A. — Author Abstract There are different schemes under Community Support- ed Agriculture, in different countries, under various des- ignations, which often diverge in their organisation, but they all aim at linking producers and consumers and offer quality products, in a short cycle. In Portugal Community Supported Agriculture (in a broad sense) is a relatively recent concept; nevertheless there are already hundreds of initiatives, mostly known as Box Schemes. The scope of this paper is to understand the profile of the box scheme’s users looking deeper into the functioning of an organic one in Loures, Portugal, point out the bottle- necks that hinder a larger diffusion of this concept, and identify approaches that may strengthen the links among the several actors and contribute to the sustainability of urban agriculture. Keywords CSA, Box Schemes, Loures Introduction Local economy, as synonymous of local scale, especially in Western thought, is often seen “as small and relatively powerless” (Herod, 2005, p.243). However, as emphasized by several authors short food supply chains may play a ho- listic role in contributing to sustainable development (Can- fora, 2016; Smith, 2008; Sustain, 2002; Pretty et al, 2005). Food travels about 1500 kms on average before reaching the consumer and the emissions of carbon gas are 100 times higher than those resulting from a local sustaina- ble production (Taipa, 2014). CSA may contribute to fight back climate change and protect the environment (water, soil, air), prevent fires, since the herds of sheep and goats not only supply the cheese industry but also control the dry mass, as it is the case in Loures; improve biodiversity and provide tasty and healthy food, safeguarding local varieties, by boosting local agriculture (FLFI, 2003), and last but not least linking producers and consumers. Besides, as presented by Renting and Dubbeling (2013) for the urban farmer, CSA may play other roles not so common such as recreation, therapy and education. Paül et al (2013) refers to “holeriturisme” in Barcelona, which promotes weekly specific vegetables to consumers. In 2012, a group of experts (GEVPAL) was created to elab- orate the “Strategy to value the local agricultural produc- tion”, where it emphasized the need to invest more in its promotion, divulgation, training and organization of farmers. Nevertheless, even among educated people, who should have more access to information, only a few are aware of the contribution of Urban Agriculture “to improve security, livelihoods, environmental quality and overall social justice in our cities” (Mougeot, 2005, 278). Methodology ThestudyareaislocatedinthemunicipalityofLoures,North of Lisbon (167 km2 and 207 567 inhabitants, INE, 2016). In order to know better the motivations of both farmers and consumers of a PROVE organic vegetable box in Sacavém, Loures, an inquiry was launched between July and Septem- ber 2014, which followed the structure presented by Jack- son (2005) in order to know better consumers’ motivations to engage in these new consumption models; what factors shape and constrain their choices and actions; why (and when) do people behave in pro-environmental or pro-social ways; and finally how can we encourage, motivate and fa- cilitate more sustainable attitudes, behaviors and lifestyles. In total 32 consumers were interviewed, 14 men and 18 women (75% of the active members). This box scheme was created in the framework of a PROVE project, an “inter-ter- ritorial co-operation project between eight Local Action Groups located around Portugal that provide continuity to the experience and methodology developed as part of the IC EQUAL initiative which is intended to resolve issues related to the marketing of local products and to take advantage of the proximity of producers and consumers in peri-urban areas” (http://www.prove.com.pt/www/english.T9.php). Two of the three farmers who supplied this project in Loures were also interviewed. The first version of the vegetables box was interrupted in July 2015, due to divergences among the producers and a new scheme only started on the 30th January 2017, with 10 farmers and 4 delivery sites (http:// www.prove.com.pt/www/sk-pub-nucleos.php?dst=2). One of these farmers was interviewed in March 2018. Results Those interviewed were predominantly young: 43% were under 40 years old, 31% were in their forties, 25% were in their fifties and less than 1% were older than 60. The oldest were not the direct purchasers of the boxes, they picked them up for their children. These are middle class consumers: four public servants who work for the municipality of Loures, which is part of the pro- ject, four informatics, three entrepreneurs and other jobs (nutritionist, geographer, biologist…).
34 498 34 All those interviewed considered the price of the box as reasonable (15 Euros for a box with 7 to 8 kgs; 10 Euros for the small size, 4 to 5 kgs). The majority purchased the box twice a month, less than 40% picked it up every week. In terms of proximity, some did not live in the vicinity of the distribution point (one lived 80 kms away) but in this case they worked nearby or, for some reason, had to cross the area in Sacavém. Discussion By the end of September 2014 this Organic Vegetables Box had 43 active members and 8 in stand-by (some had to trav- el to work abroad or moved temporarily to another region, or had their own production for a certain period of the year). Since the start of the project (September 2013) 135 people had participated in this initiative, some of whom for a short period (Fig.1). Thus, in total, 84 members had withdrawn! The three farmers involved in the project were able to keep more or less the same number of active members in the first year of existence but there was a relatively high percentage of new adherents and excluded members, which caused some concern (for how long is it possible to attract new members, that balance those stepping out?). Fig. 1 - PROVE Box Adhesions by clients admitted, excluded and in stand-by between 23.9.2013 and 31.8.2014 in Sacavém/ Loures The reasons to give up the box are mainly because it is dif- ficult to coordinate their routines with the day and hours to pick up the box. Although it is possible to get it delivered at home, it will be more expensive. Some have financial re- strictions and others do not need to buy products so often and or so regularly, because they also have their own pro- duction or have a small family and thus some share the box with friends. It may be a constraint the fact that they have to adapt their meals to the ingredients available, which are seasonal (86 different products) and not always known by many clients. The disadvantages were mainly due to the difficult access to the place of distribution, that even for those living in the area was not easy to find the first time, distance to the con- sumers living in the northern part of the municipality, lack of parking places for cars or not much fruit available. In terms of advantages of purchasing the boxes, the con- sumers emphasized the connection to the farmer, who taught them the names of the products such as Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris var. cicla) and Mizuna japonese (Rapa nip- posinica) and how to prepare them. Food security is an im- portant issue (particularly if they have children, and often these products are only for the youngest) also the quality and diversity, the freshness, flavours and smells of the prod- ucts (particularly the herbs) and proximity to their dwelling. In general those interviewed valued the boxes scheme more for the fact that they do not need to worry about what to buy (no need to “burn the neurone” as one said!), nor lose time looking for the ingredients in the supermarket. The environmental concern and all the rest that we read about the theory related to local and proximity economy, apparently did not play an important role in their decision to purchase the box, probably because some respondents had not been the contractors. It was often the father or the husband who picked up the box. The women were in charge to pick up the children from school or are at home preparing dinner. From the perspective of the farmers, although this repre- sents much work, they seem satisfied with the results. The average income at the national level of the farmers who sell the boxes was about 500 Euros/month, which was the mini- mum wage in Portugal. Since they have other sources of in- come, selling in other markets, this is acceptable for most of them, as states Teresa Pouzada, coordinator of Local Action Group ADRITEM, in North Portugal (O Regional, 19.4.2012). These data were updated last March, in an interview with the organic farmer responsible for the supply of a new de- livery site (since end of February 2018) at the Hospital of Loures (only for collaborators) and for the original one at Sa- cavém (restarted on the 30 January 2017). At Sacavém he sells between 12 and 19 boxes per week. At the hospital, after a certain initial “boom”, he sells between 4 and 9 box- es/week, mainly to doctors. Today, according to this informant, it seems that the clients are better informed but the adhesion is yet relatively low. It is important to point out that the small box was eliminat- ed, and the large keeps the same price (15 Euros) but has less quantity (5 to 7 kgs, formerly 7 to 8). The Municipality has shown much endeavour in responding to consumers’ complaints, offering several delivery sites and divulgating these initiatives, but it is not yet sufficiently visible. This is a general problem as a survey among 20 students of Geog- raphy, at Universidade Nova de Lisboa, last March, shows: none of them had ever heard about box schemes!
35 498 35 Conclusions The findings show that there is a high volatility among ad- herents to the studied box scheme in Loures, which may be explained by the fact that being a member of a CSA “requires a different consumer attitude” with more commit- ment and responsibility which people often do not want to accept (Kinga, 2001, 66). This work allowed a better knowledge of the consumer’s profile of a box scheme. Some of the identified bottlenecks can be solved with more and better information diffusion. In line with Marsden et al (2000, 426) who evokes as a crit- ical issue that “product reach the consumer embedded with information”, mailing a flyer, involving citizens into a par- ticipatory approach and organizing visits to the farms and delivery sites, as it is already the case with schools, could eventually bring more people into the project. In Loures a certain variety of purple broccoli could be promoted through “holeriturisme”, also among local restaurants, which would benefit from a link to Slow Food Movements. The links along the supply chain could also be strengthened by creating a label, which would identify the production with the local “saloio” culture (“hortas saloias”, for instance) as there was already an attempt in the past. Saloios are the Moorish people, who settled in the region and stayed after the conquest in the 12th century. They were excellent farm- ers, known for the quality of their agricultural products, and although there is no certification, a “saloio” product is still today acknowledged as a quality product. The creation of more delivery sites at large employment centers (as it is already the case at the hospital) would also contribute to diversify the client base and reach out to oth- er institutions and businesses. The success of the box scheme is an added value for urban agriculture, contributing to keep the idyllic landscapes of the past (Firmino, 1999), as it is the case in Loures, but it may be restrained by the lack of land to extend the activi- ties, especially in peri-urban areas (EIP-AGRI, 2015). Thus it is a challenge to combine all these factors, link producers and consumers to reach some food supply autonomy, back up the local economy and maintain a healthy environment. Acknowledgement The author wishes to thank to the farmers Carmen Mouco and Firmino José, Eng. Marlene Marques (Municipality of Loures), key informants for this research, and Graham Reed for editing the text. References Canfora, I. (2016) Is the short food supply chain an efficient solution for sustainability in food market?, Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 8, 402-407. EIP-AGRI Focus Group (2015) Innovative Short Food Sup- ply Chain Management, Final Report, EIP-AGRI, Brussels Firmino, A. (1999) Agriculture and Landscape in Portugal, Landscape and Urban Planning, 46 (1-3), 83-91. FLFI [Foundation for Local Food Initiatives] (2003) Feeding the Future: Policy options for local food, SUSTAIN, London. Herod, A. (2005) Scale: the local and the global, chapter 12, Holloway, S. et al Editors, Key Concepts in Geography, SAGE Publications, London, UK, 229-247. Jackson, T. (2005) Motivating Sustainable Consumption - a review of evidence on consumer behavior and behavioral change, University of Surrey, UK. Kinga. M. (2001) A Consumer’s Perspective, Hayes, M.; Kin- ga, M., Community Supported Agriculture (CSA), Open Gar- den Foundation, Gödöllo, Hungary, 65-67. Marsden, T. et al (2000) Food Supply Chain Approaches: Exploring their Role in Rural Development. Sociologia Rura- lis 40 (4), 424-438. Mougeot, L. (2005) Neglected Issues on Form and Sub- stance of Research on Urban Agriculture, Mougeot, L., Ed- itor (2005) Agropolis, Earthscan, London, UK, 267-279. Paül, V. et al (2013) Alternative Food Networks or Agritour- ism ? The “Vegetable Tourism” Experience in the Barcelona Peri-Urban Area (Catalonia, Spain) Kim, D-C.; Firmino, A.; Ichikawa, Y., Editors, Globalization and New Challenges of Agricultural and Rural Systems, CSRS/IGU, Nagoya, Japan, p. 114-128. Pretty, J. N. et al (2005) Farm costs and food miles: an as- sessment of the full cost of the UK weekly food basket. Food Policy. 2005;30:1–20. Renting, H.; Dubbeling, M. (2013) Synthesis report: Inno- vative experiences with (peri-) urban agriculture and urban food provisioning – Lessons to be learned from the global South, RUAF Foundation, Leusden, Netherlands. Smith, B. G. (2008) Developing sustainable food supply chains, Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society of London, Biol Sci. 2008, Feb 27; 363(1492): 849–861. Sustain (2002) Sustainable food chains. Briefing paper 2, Public Sector catering; opportunities and issues relating to sustainable food procurement, London, UK. Taipa (2014) Manual Horta Recíproco no Pré-Escolar, Taipa, ADL, Odemira, Portugal. Other Sources O Regional, 19.4.2012
36 498 Poggi, F., Firmino, A., & Amado, M. (2018). CLUSTERS MUNICIPAIS DE BIOENERGIA: UM CONTRIBUTO PARA A PREVENÇÃO DE INCÊNDIOS FLORESTAIS. Finisterra, 53(108), 39–52. https://doi. org/10.18055/Finis13717
CLUSTERS MUNICIPAIS DE BIOENERGIA: UM CONTRIBUTO PARA A PREVENÇÃO DE INCÊNDIOS FLORESTAIS Francesca Poggi1 Ana Firmino2 Miguel Amado3 RESUMO – Após o momento de choque que Portugal sofreu com o incêndio de Pedrogão Grande (2017), equacionar as dimensões e responsabilidade social da Geografia torna-se especialmente relevante na construção de respostas capazes de assegurar a defesa das pessoas, dos bens e dos recursos naturais. Neste artigo reflecte-se sobre uma relação causa-efeito-solução a estabelecer para a prevenção de incêndios florestais que articula a geografia da energia com o planeamento municipal. Trata-se de uma reflexão crítica sobre a dimensão estratégica do planeamento, materializada no Plano Director Municipal e os pos- síveis contributos do aproveitamento e valorização da biomassa florestal, com vista ao desenvolvimento de clusters municipais ligados à bioenergia. É aqui que os mecanismos de limpeza e recolha de resíduos florestais para a produção de energia renovável emergem como valência económica indispensável para um maior contributo na prevenção activa do risco de incêndio, preconizando um novo eixo estratégico para a redução da sua incidência e melhorando o ordenamento do território a nível municipal. Palavras-chave: Biomassa florestal; prevenção de incêndios; bioenergia; clusters muni- cipais; Plano Diretor Municipal; PDM. ABSTRACT – MUNICIPAL CLUSTERS OF BIOENERGY: A CONTRIBUTION TO FOREST FIRE PREVENTION. After the shock that Portugal suffered with the forest fires at Pedrogão Grande (2017), inspiring critical reflections on the role and social responsibility of Geography is especially relevant to develop an adequate response framework for the pro- tection of life, goods and natural resources. This article reflects on a cause-effect-solution Recebido: janeiro 2018. Aceite: maio 2018. 1 Investigadora do Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais (CICS.Nova) da Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida de Berna, 26-C, 1069-061, Lisboa, Portugal. E-mail: f.poggi@fcsh.unl.pt 2 Professora Catedrática e Investigadora Efetiva do Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais (CICS.Nova) da Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida de Berna, 26-C, 1069-061, Lisboa, Portugal. E-mail: am.firmino@fcsh.unl.pt 3 Professor Associado e Investigador Efectivo do Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability (CERIS), DeCi- vil, do Instituto Superior Técnico, Avenida Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal. E-mail: miguelpamado@tecnico.ulisboa.pt Finisterra, LIII, 108, 2018, pp. 39-52 ISSN: 0430-5027 doi: 10.18055/Finis13717 Artigo
40 Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52 relationship to be established for the prevention of forest fires that articulates the geography of energy with municipal planning. It is a critical reflection on the strategic role of the Muni- cipal Master Plan and the possible contributions that the utilization and valorization of the forest biomass can make, with the view to developing municipal bioenergy clusters. Here, cleaning and collecting forest waste for the production of renewable energy emerge as an opportunity to link energy, forest and economic benefits toward an effective fire risk preven- tion led by municipal decision making. Keywords: Forest biomass; fire prevention; bioenergy; municipal clusters; Municipal Master Plan; MMP. RÉSUMÉ – DES POLES MUNICIPAUX DE BIOENERGIE: UN INSTRUMENT CON- TRE LES INCENDIES FORESTIERS. À la suite du grand incendie qui a eu lieu en 2017 dans la région de Pedrogão Grande, il est urgent que les géographes assument leur responsabilité sociale dans l’élaboration de décisions permettant la défense efficace des personnes, des biens et des ressources naturelles. On indique ici quels seraient les meilleurs rapports à établir entre la planification municipale et la Géographie de l’énergie et comment valoriser la biomasse forestière, en développant davantage la bioénergie. En particulier, les méthodes de nettoyage et de récupération des résidus forestiers sont des techniques importantes, qui fournissent des revenus permettant de mieux lutter contre les risques d’incendie, tout en améliorant la gestion du territoire à l’échelle municipale. Géographie de l’énergie, Plan de Développement Munici- pal, biomasse forestière, pôle municipal, prévention des incendies. Mots clés: Biomasse forestière; prévention des incendies; bioénergie; clusters municipales; Plan de Développement Municipal; PDM. I. INTRODUÇÃO Após o momento de choque que Portugal sofreu com o incêndio de Pedrogão Grande, em 2017, equacionar as dimensões e responsabilidade social na Geografia torna-se espe- cialmente relevante na construção de respostas capazes de assegurar a defesa das pessoas, dos bens e dos recursos naturais. O caso de Pedrogão Grande constitui o mais recente e violento grande incêndio verificado no País e um dos mais graves a nível mundial. A perspectiva de base científica é, contudo, a de que se está perante um tipo de catástrofe recorrente. Desde o incêndio da Serra de Sintra, em 1966, até ao da Madeira, em 2016, a problemática dos incêndios florestais tem vindo a marcar lugares, pessoas e recursos naturais tornando-se, cada vez mais, uma constante. Não é objectivo deste artigo procurar respostas absolutas, mas sim contribuir para equacionar caminhos que até à data não tenham ainda sido implementados. O raciocínio subjacente a esta posição apoia-se na necessidade de entender que parte da solução se encontra no desenvolvimento de sistemas de prevenção dos incêndios (Ferreira et al., 2015) e na implementação de acções concretas ao nível do território (Moreira, Catry, Silva, & Rego, 2010). É neste domínio que a limpeza de matos, a limpeza e beneficiação de caminhos e criação de zonas de descontinuidade impõe uma visão integrada ao nível municipal (ICNF, 2006).
41 Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52 Mas um tal contexto torna necessário procurar perspectivas estratégicas orientadas para a implementação à escala local de acções de prevenção dependentes de inves- timentos (Manolis, Zagas, Poravou, & Zagas, 2016). Este pressuposto é ainda mais justificável se se considerar que há vários elementos no caso português que dificultam a gestão da floresta: população envelhecida e com baixos níveis de formação, propriedade privada baseada no minifúndio, o que dificulta o planeamento integrado do espaço flo- restal, absentismo e inexistência de cadastro florestal o que, por sua vez, inviabiliza o recurso aos apoios europeus (Salvador, Pimentel, Martins, & Fernandes, 2005). Perante este contexto e numa postura de precaução deve ser também equacionado o cenário de alterações climáticas e os efeitos associados que se perspectivam agravados e que aumentam o risco de incêndios florestais, em particular nos países do sul da Europa (Russo et al., 2017). São estes entendimentos que evidenciam a necessidade de existir um modelo económico e financeiro que possibilite a implementação das estratégias de pre- venção contra os incêndios acompanhado por um raciocínio estratégico no planeamento municipal para coordenar a sua execução e monitorização. Com este objectivo presente, o aproveitamento da biomassa florestal como fonte de energia renovável, pode-se revelar uma oportunidade de valorização do mundo rural através da produção de energia limpa para satisfazer a demanda de energia no local (Krajačić, Duić, & Carvalho, 2011), a melhoria da gestão das explorações (Shivan & Meh- mood, 2010) e a criação de emprego numa óptica de fileira florestal (Sacchelli, De Meo, & Paletto, 2013). É neste sentido que o aproveitamento energético da biomassa associado a mecanismos de limpeza e recolha de resíduos florestais para a redução do risco de incêndios, leva à presente proposta de clusters municipais ligados à bioenergia. II. BIOENERGIA: ALGUNS CONCEITOS BÁSICOS 1. Conceitos básicos Os aspectos técnicos e logísticos que caracterizam o domínio da bioenergia e a sua relação com o planeamento municipal requerem a sistematização de alguns conceitos básicos, a começar pela definição de biomassa e a classificação das suas diferentes formas de valorização energética. Se atendermos à directiva europeia relativa à promo- ção da utilização de energia proveniente de fontes renováveis, a biomassa corresponde a “fracção biodegradável de produtos, resíduos e detritos de origem biológica prove- nientes da agricultura (incluindo substâncias de origem vegetal e animal), da explora- ção florestal e de indústrias afins, incluindo da pesca e da aquicultura, bem como a fracção biodegradável dos resíduos industriais e urbanos” (Parlamento Europeu, 2009, Art. 2º. alínea e). Neste sentido, a biomassa insere-se no quadro funcional de quatro grandes sectores: 1. agricultura; 2. pecuária; 3. floresta; 4. tratamento de resíduos resul- tantes da actividade humana. De referir que o termo biomassa é abrangente e deve ser associado ao conceito de fonte de energia, ou seja, as diferentes matérias-primas para a sua produção. Por outro
42 lado, a designação correcta para o tipo de energia produzida é Bioenergia, sendo este, o termo a utilizar de forma a não causar qualquer confusão com os diferentes recursos que são matéria-prima por si só ou parte de um produto compósito (Boyle, 2012). O quadro I sistematiza as diferentes categorias das fontes primárias e secundárias de biomassa, referindo alguns aspectos que são entendidos como fundamentais para a produção da bioenergia e a sua implementação no território. Quadro I – Fontes primárias e secundárias de biomassa. Table I – Primary and secondary biomass sources. Categoria Origem Resistência clima, pragas doença Exemplos Produção média (tms/ha)* Biomassa lenhosa Culturas florestais Resíduos florestais Elevada Eucalipto; Salgueiro; Choupo 10 Biomassa celulósica Culturas energéticas agrícolas Média Cardo; Miscanthus; Kenaf; Painço 10-18 Biomassa de amido/açúcar Culturas energéticas agrícolas Resíduos agrícolas Baixa Cereais (milho, trigo, sorgo, arroz); Beterraba; Cana-de-açúcar 10 Biomassa de óleos Culturas energéticas agrícolas Baixa Oleaginosas (colza, girassol, soja) 8 Biomassa gasosa Resíduos orgânicos Resíduos agrícolas Resíduos de origem animal _ Aterros sanitários; ETAR; RSU; Explorações agro-pecuárias _ * Toneladas de matéria seca por hectare. Fontes: Brás, Miranda, Hipólito, & Dias (2006); ICNF, (2010a); Boyle, (2012) A biomassa lenhosa está directamente associada às florestas, valorizando as matérias- -primas produzidas por culturas florestais para fins energéticos, os resíduos resultantes das operações de limpeza dos povoamentos florestais e os resíduos/desperdícios prove- nientes dos processos de produção da indústria da madeira (Andrews & Jelley, 2007). Os sistemas praticados para as culturas lenhosas são florestas de rápido crescimento com espécies dedicadas ao regime de curta rotação (ciclos de cortes cada 8-20 anos) e as plan- tações exploradas em regime de talhadia (ciclos de cortes cada 1-4 anos) (Boyle, 2012). Apesar de representar um recurso com efeitos positivos nos domínios da bioecono- mia, biodiversidade e preservação da qualidade dos solos, o desenvolvimento de culturas de floresta dedicadas a fins energéticos na União Europeia tem tido uma expansão bas- tante lenta, ao contrário do que está a acontecer ao nível internacional (Schulze, Gawel, Nolzen, Weise, & Frank, 2016). Este facto prende-se quer pela incerteza associada à vola- tilidade dos preços, rendimentos incertos e custos de produção, quer pelo longo período de afectação dos solos que inviabiliza os processos de adaptação às dinâmicas dos merca- dos (Schulze et al., 2016). A combinação de matéria-prima proveniente da limpeza da floresta, das atividades ligadas à fileira do sector da madeira e das culturas florestais dedicadas para a produção de energia certamente desempenhará um papel importante na transição para uma eco- Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
43 nomia de baixo teor de carbono (Mola-Yudego et al., 2017). Assim sendo, é relevante mencionar as espécies energéticas mais comuns para a criação de florestas de rápido cres- cimento e que podem ser adaptadas ao território português, nomeadamente o choupo, o salgueiro e o eucalipto (Lindegaard et al., 2016). No seguimento do que se referiu anteriormente, considera-se essencial salientar o modo como a implementação da bioenergia poderá evoluir no contexto nacional. Neste âmbito, as avaliações efectuadas por vários estudos apontam para um potencial de bio- massa total estimado de 34 097GWh/ano, dividido de acordo com os recursos da figura 1 (Ferreira, Monteiro, Brito, & Vilarinho, 2017). Fig. 1 – Contribuição potencial dos diferentes recursos de biomassa à escala nacional. Fig. 1 – Potential contribution of different biomass resources at the national scale. Fonte: Adaptado de Ferreira et al. (2017) Focando no potencial de matéria-prima decorrente das florestas, é importante salien- tar a ausência de dados que permitam estimativas das culturas energéticas de espécies lenhosas, herbáceas e arbustivas, sendo um indicador do facto que actualmente não existe produção regular destas culturas em Portugal (ICNF, 2010b). Por outro lado, o contributo dos diversos recursos ilustrado na figura 1, constitui um referencial que justi- fica identificar os resíduos de origem florestal como o principal sector com potencial em termos de disponibilidade da matéria-prima, viabilidade ambiental e económica e com- petitividade. De facto, este recurso assume especial importância em Portugal, porquanto 38% da área do território nacional é coberto por floresta (ICNF, 2010b). Em termos de valorização energética, Viana, Cohen, Lopes, Aranha, (2010) estimaram que a quanti- dade total de biomassa é em torno de 1 097 milhão t/ano, sendo 579,91 mil t/ano de pinheiro-bravo (em peso seco). Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
44 2. Enquadramento legal de utilização da biomassa em Portugal A diversidade das diferentes fontes de biomassa e a sua distribuição geográfica extensa e dispersa, bem como a sua variabilidade ao longo do tempo, obriga a interpelar o território enquanto suporte físico e logístico, local de limpeza, de produção de energia renovável e, como tal, um sistema onde se deve desenvolver uma acção ao nível da pre- venção dos incêndios, que pretendemos analisar. A necessidade de uma análise crítica acerca do impacto da legislação na valorização energética da biomassa, torna-se uma etapa essencial para entender o actual quadro de implementação global deste recurso. Neste sentido, começa-se por mencionar o Plano Nacional de Defesa da Floresta con- tra Incêndios (PNDFCI), aprovado pela Resolução do Conselho de Ministros n.º 65/2006, de 26 de Maio, que preconizou intervenções em domínios prioritários como sejam a prevenção estrutural, vigilância, combate e eixos estratégicos de atuação, envolvendo, nomeadamente, o aumento da resiliência do território aos incêndios florestais, a redução da incidência dos incêndios, a melhoria da eficácia do ataque e da gestão dos incêndios, a recuperação e reabilitação dos ecossistemas e a adaptação de uma estrutura orgânica e funcional eficaz. Este conjunto de medidas representou um primeiro passo importante no equacionar a biomassa para energia como um possível contributo na prevenção dos incêndios e valorização das florestas. É de facto, na sequência do disposto pelo PNDFCI, que o Governo lançou no mesmo ano a Estratégia Nacional para as Florestas (ENF), aprovada pela Resolução do Conselhos de Ministros nº 114/2006, de 15 de setembro de 2006, que reconheceu a importância que a fileira da biomassa para energia representava para o desenvolvimento nacional e destacou o valor dos recursos florestais para a sociedade nas suas diversas funções e valências económicas, sociais e ambientais (Soares & Tavares da Silva, 2013). Ainda que assumindo alguma coincidência e complementaridade dos objectivos da ENF, a Estratégia Nacional para a Energia aprovada pela Resolução do Conselho de Ministros n.º 29/2010, de 15 de abril de 2010, veio reforçar a elevada importância da valorização energética da biomassa para o País considerando a sua transversalidade à gestão florestal na redução dos riscos associados, nomeadamente incêndios, bem como para a sua sustentabilidade. É neste documento que se começa também a referir a opor- tunidade de criar riqueza e consolidar um cluster energético no sector das energias reno- váveis em Portugal, conceitos estes, que assumem particular relevância no âmbito da proposta de modelo que se apresenta neste estudo. A necessidade de articular estas duas estratégias foi reconhecida na Resolução do Conselhos dos Ministros nº 81/2010, de 3 de novembro de 2010, que veio estabelecer algumas medidas destinadas a incentivar a pro- dução de biomassa florestal em Portugal. Os pontos a destacar neste documento são em primeiro lugar, efectivar a construção e exploração das centrais de biomassa florestal, relativas ao concurso lançado em 2006, bem como de outras já licenciadas e que ainda não iniciaram a sua implementação, até o final de 2013, associando ao cumprimento destes objectivos a aplicação de um incentivo económico. Em segundo lugar, assegurar a sustentabilidade a prazo do abastecimento das centrais dedicadas a biomassa prevendo a possibilidade de plantação de culturas dedicadas, ou sejam, de árvores e arbustos com Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
45 características de crescimento rápido. Em terceiro lugar, promover os restos florestais resultantes das limpezas das florestas e matas como uma das matérias-primas essenciais destas centrais de produção de energia, visando-se dinamizar as operações de limpeza destas áreas e contribuindo de forma significativa para a prevenção dos fogos florestais. Em termos práticos, foi o Decreto-Lei (DL) nº 5/2011, de 10 de janeiro de 2011, que veio dar desenvolvimento às medidas anteriormente referidas, aplicando-se às centrais dedicadas a biomassa florestal relativas aos concursos públicos lançados em 2006, bem como àquelas cuja autorização de instalação se encontrasse atribuída. No entanto, os atrasos registados na instalação de muitas das centrais abrangidas por este DL determi- naram duas alterações dos prazos fixados para beneficiar dos incentivos económicos associados a entrada em exploração, que passou do final de 2016 para o final de 2018. Para o efeito, a nova legislação produzida e revista no âmbito da recente reforma flores- tal tem preconizado um impulso que poderá ser decisivo para a mudança de paradigma a qual o País está a ser chamado, assumindo maior importância após os grandes incêndios de 2017 (ICNF, 2017). Neste âmbito é de referir o DL n.º 64/2017, de 12 de junho, que define um regime especial e extraordinário para a instalação e exploração, por municípios, de novas centrais de valorização de biomassa, definindo, ao mesmo tempo, medidas de apoio e incentivo destinadas a assegurar a sua concretização, com o objetivo fundamental dadefesadafloresta,doordenamentoepreservaçãoflorestais,edocombateaosincêndios. A passagem ao nível local constitui um aspecto chave para se entender o novo papel que os municípios devem ter na dinamização de iniciativas relacionadas com a biomassa florestal para energia. Neste quadro, o DL n.º 65/2017, de 12 de junho, veio salientar a necessidade de adaptação dos Planos Diretores Municipais (PDM) face ao conteúdo dos Programas Regio- nais de Ordenamento Florestal envolvendo, obrigatoriamente, a atualização das respetivas plantas de ordenamento e de condicionantes. Esta perspectiva põe em evidência a impor- tância da gestão adequada dos recursos de biomassa florestal e, com ela, a de capacitar as autarquias na conceptualização de abordagens com finalidade de acção, seja no âmbito da identificação e caracterização de meios/instrumentos a utilizar, bem como de elaboração de medidas de base territorial adequadas ao seu contexto económico, ambiental e social. É neste sentido que a relação causa-efeito-solução a estabelecer, articula a questão do aproveitamento da biomassa para a produção de energia renovável e a mitigação do risco de incêndios com o planeamento municipal. A reflexão crítica sobre o quadro legal que tem surgido na sequência do incêndio de Pedrogão Grande, a dimensão estratégica no planeamento local, materializada pelo PDM e os possíveis contributos do aproveitamento e valorização da biomassa florestal, toma então um lugar central com vista ao desenvol- vimento de clusters municipais ligados à bioenergia. III. CLUSTERS MUNICIPAIS DA BIOENERGIA A abordagem de cluster, baseada no conceito de “concentração geográfica num particular núcleo de território de empresas inter-relacionadas e instituições correlatas tais como entidades públicas, universidades ou associações empresariais que competem Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
46 mas também colaboram no âmbito de determinado sector” (Porter, 2000, p. 15), constitui um discurso de desenvolvimento territorial e económico particularmente relevante para a realidade portuguesa. As potenciais vantagens competitivas associadas à teoria dos clusters, assentam na optimização de quatro aspectos fundamentais que constituem o modelo de Diamante de Porter: a condição dos fatores de produção; a condição da procura dos pro- dutos/serviços; a existência de indústrias relacionadas e de apoio e a estratégia, estrutura e rivalidade das empresas (Porter, 1990). Assim sendo, está-se perante um modelo cuja natureza sistémica visa a criação de um contexto para a promoção de clusters de indústrias competitivas (Porter, 1990). Neste sentido, explorar um conceito de “clusters municipais da bioenergia” significa operar uma adaptação do modelo Porter, promovendo a constituição de task forces entre municípios para implementar um sistema cooperativo, competitivo e economicamente rentável para a prevenção de incêndios florestais. Esta perspectiva posiciona-se de forma complementar em relação ao ordenamento do território, incidindo sobre a gestão, preservação e monitorização das florestas através de estratégias e regras associadas ao PDM, que o tornem eficaz. Assim, no cerne do modelo aqui proposto está o factor económico suportado por um quadro que articula o planeamento estratégico no PDM, a implementação e monitorização constante em cada município e a autonomia da execução financeira garantida pela produção de energia renovável. Apresenta-se de seguida um exemplo exploratório de aplicação do modelo cluster, considerando o município de Pampilhosa da Serra onde os incêndios de 2017 afetaram uma área de 20 000ha de floresta, num total de 35 300ha. Ocupando uma área de 397km2 e possuindo uma população residente de 4 257 habitantes (INE, 2013), Pampilhosa da Serra distingue-se pela homogeneidade do seu território e actividades humanas aí desen- volvidas. Neste contexto, é de salientar que se está perante um concelho marcado por uma superfície de áreas florestais que representa mais de 88% do seu território (fig. 2). A forte componente de actividades ligadas à silvicultura, com relevo para as culturas de Eucalipto, Medronheiro e Pinheiro Bravo, constituem o principal vector de desenvol- vimento económico do concelho. Tendo em conta esta concisa descrição do município em análise, os objectivos estratégicos de desenvolvimento de um cluster municipal da bioenergia prendem-se com a elevada incidência de incêndios e da oportunidade de localizar no concelho uma central de biomassa para auxiliar as operações de limpeza da floresta envolvendo a escala local e intermunicipal. Neste quadro, a área de abrangência teórica do cluster de bioenergia está associada à própria área de influência de uma central de biomassa. De acordo com o estudo desenvolvido por Viana et al. (2010), adoptou-se um raio de recolha de cerca de 35km que, desenhado a partir do centróide do Concelho, envolve, além de Pampilhosa da Serra, outros municípios de índole morfológica similar (fig. 3). A delimitação do cluster municipal de bioenergia, representa um exemplo de con- texto territorial adequado para operacionalizar estratégias de prevenção de incêndios e gestão florestal, relacionadas com a valorização energética da matéria-prima obtida e explorar sinergias entre municípios e investidores privados para a implementação de uma central de biomassa. Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
47 Fig. 2 – Padrões de uso e ocupação do solo no concelho de Pampilhosa da Serra. Figura a cores disponível online. Fig. 2 – Main patterns of land use and land cover in the municipality of Pampilhosa da Serra. Colour figure available online. Fonte: baseado na Carta de Uso e Ocupação do Solo (COS2007, nível 2) Fig. 3 – Exemplo de delimitação de cluster municipal de bioenergia. Figura a cores disponível online. Fig. 3 – Example of municipal bioenergy cluster delimitation. Colour figure available online. Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
48 Em termos gerais, as componentes fundamentais desta abordagem são constituídas pelas seguintes vertentes: 1. atracção de investimento privado – decorre da realização de centrais de bio- massa com uma abrangência municipal ou intermunicipal. É o domínio onde se geram e consubstanciam as regras de localização destas infra-estruturas, com suporte em modelos de Sistemas de Informação Geográfica capazes de identificar espacialmente e contribuir para quantificar o potencial de biomassa existente e disponível para recolha num município; 2. criação de emprego no sector público – a necessidade de remover e recolher os resíduos florestais no interior do território municipal traduz-se numa opor- tunidade de criação de emprego localizado. Na lógica de cluster municipal de bioenergia está implícita a criação de empresas municipais ou intermunicipais associadas às actividades de manutenção e monitorização da floresta; 3. controlo da ocupação do solo privado e público – considerando a limpeza e manutenção da floresta como um aspecto prioritário, colectivo e de responsa- bilidade social, o PDM deve assumir-se como ferramenta para a estratégia de programação da limpeza, tanto em solo privado como público. No caso da pro- priedade privada, a limpeza pode ser realizada através de dois mecanismos: existência de incentivo económico ao proprietário ou determinação de proce- dimentos de acção de segurança pública a serem introduzidos ao nível das Uni- dades Operativas de Planeamento e Gestão, a que os privados devem garantir o cumprimento nas suas acções de uso e transformação do solo. O incentivo eco- nómico prevê estimular os proprietários a fazerem a limpeza dos próprios ter- renos e esse apoio económico está interligado com a entrega dos respectivos resíduos na central de biomassa mais próxima para que se operacionalize o incentivo. Por outro lado, nos casos em que o proprietário é desconhecido ou não tem recursos para efetuar a própria limpeza, será o sector público, através do serviço municipal, a efectuar a limpeza na propriedade privada ao abrigo de uma acção por razões de segurança pública, arrecadando este o valor do incen- tivo económico equivalente; 4. criação de serviços municipais para a prevenção dos incêndios florestais – a produção de bioenergia tem como vantagem a geração de valor decorrente da venda da energia, valor esse a distribuir territorialmente em suporte dos serviços de coordenação, limpeza e recolha dos resíduos florestais e monitorização do ter- ritório. A aplicação deste modelo origina um conjunto de domínios de interven- ção capazes de promover sinergias entre uso inteligente do solo, produção de bioenergia e prevenção de incêndios (quadro II). Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
49 Quadro II – Clusters municipais de energia: principais domínios de intervenção. Imagem a cores disponível online. Table II – Municipal clusters of energy: main domains of intervention. Colour image available online. Modelo esquemático Descrição O aproveitamento energético da biomassa que resulta da limpeza e recolha de resíduos florestais, traduz-se, antes de tudo, numa solução eficaz e necessária para a manutenção, valorização e protecção das florestas. Esta proposta prende- -se com a realização de centrais de biomassa com uma abrangência municipal ou intermunicipal vocacionadas para a criação de emprego no sector público, associado a serviços municipais para a prevenção dos incêndios florestais. De referir que a produção de electricidade e calor pode complementar o consumo de energia dos aglomerados e actividades agrícolas envolventes. A criação de trabalho, em simultâneo com a oportunidade de investimentos públicos (interveniente de 1º nível), privados (interveniente de 2º nível) e/ou da comunidade (interveniente de 3º nível), representam factores de competitividade e atractividade para o município. Em linha com as orientações da UE para a política energética, as áreas de expansão de culturas energéticas são as terras degradadas ou abandonadas e as terras aráveis não utilizadas. Neste âmbito, a implementação de culturas energéticas constitui uma oportunidade para complementar a biomassa florestal e possibilitar a reconversão e regeneraçãodestasáreas.Autilizaçãodossolosabandonados é um processo reversível e que possibilita a mitigação do risco de incêndio, a diminuição do risco de erosão e a recuperação de ecossistemas. De referir que este aumento de matéria-prima deverá ser obtido através de espécies de crescimento rápido implementadas de forma sustentável, isto é, não proporcionando algum impacto negativo nos recursos hídricos, solo e biodiversidade. Este domínio de intervenção enquadra-se numa lógica de investimentos que podem ser públicos, mas também envolver sinergias entre privados e comunidades associadas em sistemas de consórcios ou cooperativas. Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
50 Modelo esquemático Descrição A produção de bioenergia coloca a questão da implantação das respectivas centrais a biomassa. Trata-se de um tipo de equipamento cuja localização e dimensão representam aspectos fundamentais para garantir a logística associada com a recolha, entrega e armazenamento de matéria prima. De referir a necessidade de manter estas centrais afastadas dos aglomerados para evitar eventuais emissões de poluentes e maus cheiros. Neste sentido, as pedreiras e as minas desactivadas, sendo habitualmente afastadas de qualquer aglomerado urbano e rural, constituem localizações óptimas para este tipo de central. A própria configuração espacial apresenta áreas adequadas para o armazenamento de grandes quantidades de matéria prima. Acrescenta-se a possibilidade de associar à produção de bioenergia, a instalação de painéis fotovoltaicos nas áreas envolventes com encostas e declives que apresentem boa exposição solar. As propostas de intervenção desenvolvidas no âmbito do presente estudo, referem-se ao aproveitamento da biomassa florestal complementado, ou não, por culturas energé- ticas em solos abandonados, destacando-se os respectivos benefícios ambientais, sociais e económicos. De acordo com os três modelos esquemáticos apresentados, ressalta que a implementação da bioenergia necessita de ser associada a uma abordagem integrada e sectorial que permita o seu aproveitamento de forma sustentável. Dando suporte à necessidade de um planeamento da bioenergia à escala municipal, é também apresentado um modelo que representa uma orientação concreta para a localização das centrais a biomassa aproveitando as áreas de pedreiras ou minas desactivadas. Por fim, é de referir que numa óptica de valorização do interesse público e da responsabilidade civil, a pro- moção da biomassa para energia coloca-se não como um custo, mas antes, como uma oportunidade de investimento para o sector privado, público e comunidades locais, como se evidencia no âmbito de cada esquema apresentado. IV. CONCLUSÕES A natureza complexa e em parte imprevisível, que decorre da problemática dos incêndios florestais, não permite respostas lineares e imediatas, em particular no contexto de territórios de baixa densidade caracterizado pela escassez de recursos humanos e financeiros. Da análise apresentada, emerge que é do território, sociedade e economia que estamos a falar: da necessidade de encontrar soluções eficazes e mais resilientes de ordenamento do território, necessidade de incorporar o interesse pela Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52 Quadro II – (cont.). Table II – (cont.).
51 segurança pública e responsabilidade partilhada e a necessidade de criar modelos eco- nómicos que conduzam à implementação das acções. É com este conjunto de premissas que os mecanismos de limpeza e recolha de resíduos florestais para produção de ener- gia renovável, emergem como valência económica indispensável a um maior contri- buto na diminuição activa do risco de incêndio, indicando um novo eixo estratégico para a redução da sua incidência e melhorando o ordenamento do território a nível municipal. A proposta de clusters municipais de bioenergia visa suscitar a cooperação entre municípios contíguos com gestão e intervenção num mesmo tipo de território. Esta proposta decorre da assunção do principal valor que estrutura e mobiliza a socie- dade moderna: o valor económico, sem contudo deixar de reconhecer a necessidade de defesa da floresta como um bem comum do país, à luz de uma justiça territorial, um direito social e uma responsabilidade colectiva. AGRADECIMENTOS Agradece-se à Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia a bolsa de doutoramento concedida à pri- meira autora (referência SFRH/BD/94702/2013). REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52 Andrews, J., & Jelley, N. (2007). Energy Science: Princi- ples, Technologies, and Impacts. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Boyle, G. (2012). Renewable energy: power for a sus- tainable future. Open University (3a .). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brás, A. M., Miranda, F., Hipólito, L., & Dias, L. S. (2006). Biomassa e produção de energia [Biomass and energy production] [Versão eletrónica]. In Direcção Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho (Eds.), O Minho, a Terra e o Homem [The Minho, the Earth and the Man] (pp. 23-30). Retrieved from http://docplayer.com.br/9358312 -Biomassa-e-producao-de-energia.html Decreto-Lei n.º 64/2017, de 12/06/2017 – Aprova o regime para novas centrais de biomassa florestal [Approves the regime for new forest biomass power stations]. Retrieved from http://data.dre. pt/eli/dec-lei/64/2017/06/12/p/dre/pt/html Decreto-Lei n.º 65/2017, de 12/06/2017 – Altera o regime jurídico dos planos de ordenamento, de gestão e de intervenção de âmbito florestal [Amends the legal regime of forest management, management and intervention plans]. Retrieved from http://data. dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/65/2017/06/12/p/dre/pt/html Decreto-Lei n.º 5/2011, de 10/01/2011 – Produção e Aproveitamento de Biomassa Florestal [Produc- tion and Use of Forest Biomass]. Retrieved from http://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/5/2011/01/10/p/ dre/pt/html Ferreira, A. J. D., Alegre, S. P., Coelho, C. O. A., Shakesby, R. A., Páscoa, F. M., Ferreira, C. S. S… Ritsema, C. (2015). Strategies to prevent forest fires and techniques to reverse degradation processes in burned areas. CATENA, 128, 224-237. Ferreira, S., Monteiro, E., Brito, P., & Vilarinho, C. (2017). Biomass resources in Portugal: Current status and prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 78, 1221-1235. Shivan, G. C., & Mehmood, S. R. (2010). Factors influ- encing nonindustrial private forest landowners’ policy preference for promoting bioenergy. Forest Policy and Economics, 12(8), 581-588. Instituto da Convervação da Natureza e das Florestas. (ICNF). (2017). Relatório provisório de incêndios florestais 2017 [Provisional report on forest fires 2017]. Lisboa: Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e das Florestas. Retrieved from http:// www2.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/dfci/Resource/ doc/rel/2017/10-rel-prov-1jan-31out-2017.pdf
52 Instituto da Convervação da Natureza e das Florestas. (ICNF). (2010a). Culturas Energéticas Florestais [Forest energy crops]. Lisboa: Instituto da Con- servação da Natureza e das Florestas. Retrieved from http://www.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/fileiras/ resource/docs/biom/biomass-gtce-jun10 Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e das Florestas. (ICNF). (2010b). 5.º Inventário Florestal Nacio- nal [5th Nacional Forest Inventory]. Lisboa: Insti- tuto da Conservação da Natureza e das Florestas. Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e das Florestas. (ICNF). (2006). Plano Nacional de Defesa da Flo- resta Contra Incêndios [National Forest Fire Pro- tection Plan]. Lisboa: Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e das Florestas. Retrieved from https:// poseur.portugal2020.pt/media/4140/plano_ nacional_defesa_floresta_contra_incendios.pdf Instituto Nacional de Estatística. (INE). (2013). População residente (N.º) por Local de residência. Estatísticas territoriais [Resident population (Nº.) by residence. Territorial statistics]. Retrieved from https://www. ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_ unid_territorial&menuBOUI=13707095&context o=ut&selTab=tab3 Krajačić, G., Duić, N., & Carvalho, M. da G. (2011). How to achieve a 100% RES electricity supply for Portugal? Applied Energy, 88(2), 508-517. Lindegaard, K. N., Adams, P. W. R., Holley, M., Lamley, A., Henriksson, A., Larsson, S… Pisarel, M. (2016). Short rotation plantations policy history in Europe: lessons from the past and recommen- dations for the future. Food and Energy Security, 5(3), 125-152. Manolis, E. N., Zagas, T. D., Poravou, C. A., & Zagas, D. T. (2016). Biomass assessment for sustainable bioenergy utilization in a Mediterranean forest ecosystem in northwest Greece. Ecological Engi- neering, 91, 537-544. Mola-Yudego, B., Arevalo, J., Díaz-Yáñez, O., Dimitriou, I., Haapala, A., Carlos Ferraz Filho, A… Val- buena, R. (2017). Wood biomass potentials for energy in northern Europe: Forest or planta- tions? Biomass and Bioenergy, 106, 95-103. Moreira, F., Catry, F. X., Silva, J. S., & Rego, F. (2010). Ecologia do fogo e gestão de áreas ardidas [Fire ecology and management of burned areas]. Isa- press. Retrieved from https://www.repository. utl.pt/handle/10400.5/3894 Parlamento Europeu. (2009). Directiva 2009/28/CE. Jornal Oficial da União Europeia, 140/17, 47. Porter, M. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. New York: Free Press. Porter, M. E. (2000). Location, competition, and economic development: Local clusters in a global economy. Economic development quarterly, 14(1), 15-34. Russo, A., Gouveia, C. M., Páscoa, P., Da Camara, C. C., Sousa, P. M., & Trigo, R. M. (2017). Assessing the role of drought events on wildfires in the Iberian Peninsula. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 237-238, 50-59. Sacchelli, S., De Meo, I., & Paletto, A. (2013). Bioenergy production and forest multifunctionality: A trade-off analysis using multiscale GIS model in a case study in Italy. Applied Energy, 104, 10-20. Salvador, R., Pimentel, D., Martins, F., & Fernandes, A. (2005). Reconstrução do espaço florestal [Recons- truction of forest space]. X Colóquio Ibérico de Geografia “A Geografia Ibérica no contexto Euro- peu”. APGEO, Évora. Schulze, J., Erik, G., Nolzen, H., Weise, H., & Frank, K. (2016). The expansion of short rotation forestry: characterization of determinants with an agent‐ based land use model. GCB Bioenergy, 9(6), 1042-1056. Soares, C. A., & Tavares da Silva, S. (2013). Direito das Energias Renováveis [Renewable Energy Law]. Coimbra: Edições Almedina. Viana, H., Cohen, W. B., Lopes, D., & Aranha, J. (2010). Assessment of forest biomass for use as energy. GIS-based analysis of geographical availability and locations of wood-fired power plants in Por- tugal. Applied Energy, 87(8), 2551-2560. Poggi, F., Firmino, A., Amado, M. Rev. Finis. LIII(108), 2018, pp. 39-52
51 498 Firmino, A. (2016). FROM AGROPOLIS TO ECOPOLIS, WHAT CHANGED?: GEOGRAPHICAL APPROACHES TO FOOD ISSUES. GeoProgress Journal, 23(1), 9–28.
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 9 FROM AGROPOLIS TO ECOPOLIS, WHAT CHANGED? GEOGRAPHICALAPPROACHES TO FOOD ISSUES Ana Firmino Abstract In this paper the issue of food production will be tackled from a geographical perspective, which intends to analyze the changes occurred in the life's pattern of the so-called most developed societies, that has driven to an unbearable pressure on the natural resources and is affecting the health of the planet and of ourselves. Moreover it will be discussed how efforts to undertake transition into creating a more sustainable model, can also contribute to mitigate and eventually eradicate hunger in the world. 1. Introduction Food is essential to life. Therefore harvesting and hunting were vital to the survival of the populations since the beginning of human life on Earth and in some societies they still are. About 10 000 years ago agriculture started being implemented and since then a large array of technical improvements has allowed that today, in an ever more urbanized world, farmers may feed an increasing population of 7 billion people, which is expected to reach between 9 and 10 billion people in 2050. Agropolis represents an agrarian society, as displayed in von Thünen's model, published in the 19th century, where the lack of easy access to the markets and the rudimentary technical tools available at that time dictated a local production, with the most perishable items located near the market. Although this was not contrary to the import of products from abroad (namely spices and cereals) exchanges with foreign countries were restricted due to the long and dangerous transportation by land or sea and because the consumers had no purchase capacity. The advent of industrialization brought mechanization and with it the generalized use of petroleum, which rendered transportation easier and allowed the reversal of the insofar dominant rationalities, from an economic point of view. In some cases it would be more advantageous to import food from countries where favorable production costs such as labor were cheaper. In the Western countries, mainly after Second World War, changes in society and higher levels of wealth supported dietarian shifts towards a higher intake of calories and demand for a larger diversity of products over the year. Petropolis, a model based on intensive agriculture (mechanization, specialization and imports) is representative of this stage which sooner or later has affected every society and is responsible for much pollution and heavy consumption of oil. In a more recent era of our History, societies started increasing their awareness of the impact that this model has on the environment and our health. The anticipated
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 10 exhaustion of oil, predicted around 2050, calls our attention to the need for a transition from a society dependent on oil to a resilient one, as defended by Rob Hopkins (2008). Girardet (2011) suggests Ecopolis, a model distinguished by resilience and endeavor in creating a sustainable society, which retains the best from preceding models, namely some similarity to von Thünen's one, and the local production of food, together with a generalized use of sustainable energies, energy efficiency and zero waste. 2. From Agropolis to Ecopolis, what changed? 2.1 Agropolis Agropolis corresponds to an agrarian model presented by Girardet (2011) in which due to the absence of efficient transport and conservation methods, cities depend on nearby markets, gardens, orchards, forests, arable and grazing land, according to this sequence. It is a simplified interpretation of the classic model of agricultural land use in Geography developed by von Thünen, a German farmer and economist (1783-1850). Von Thünen's model shows the relationship between distance to the city (symbolizing the market) and how farming gets organized spatially. The model assumes that:  The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State" which is self- sufficient and has no external contacts;  The land of the State is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains;  The soil quality and climate are the same throughout the State;  Farmers use the same technology and resources;  Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods directly to market in the central city;  Farmers act to maximize profits. The model created by von Thünen develops in a pattern of rings around the city in which dairying and intensive farming are located in the ring closest to the city. As perishable goods such as vegetables, fruits, milk and other dairy products must get faster to market they would be produced close to the city. Forest would come next, since wood is heavy to carry and was an important material at the time for fuel and building, for heating and cooking. The third ring was occupied by extensive field crops such as grains for bread. They can be stored longer than dairy products and they are easy to carry, thus they can be located further from the city. In the fourth and last ring we find ranching, since animals can walk to the city for sale and slaughter. Beyond the fourth ring lies wilderness, too far away from the city to produce
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 11 anything except ecological services! In a homogeneous idealized situation the rings would be concentric but these get distorted if rivers, hills or other cities occur in the area, as shown in the lower half of the image (Figure 1). As Johnston (2005) states, von Thünen derived a model for the location of agricultural production "suggesting a zonal patterning of different activities consistent with the costs of transporting the output to markets". We should take into consideration that modeling was also based on principles of least effort. Figure 1: von Thünen's model showing distortions if the area is not homogeneous Source: Adapted from Bieleman (1992) (http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y0500e/y0500e03.htm) He concluded that the farmers in an Isolated State take into consideration the costs of land, transportation and profit and produce the most cost-effective goods for market, i.e. the farms closest to the consumption market have a higher income if compared to the most distant ones. The location has, thus, in terms of profit, an inverse relationship to the distance. Of course, in the real world, this is not always true, since many other factors contribute to the final profit. If we take a look at the crops grown today in Metropolitan areas we realize that up to a certain degree von Thünen's model is still valid. Perishable vegetables and fruits are grown in the closest areas to the market, while less perishable goods like grains are produced in more distant areas. However, nowadays goods also travel long distances to reach the markets abroad and can be cheaper than those produced locally, especially if we do not internalize the cost of pollution in transporting them, and disregard labor legislation and animals' rights as applied in Western countries, or dump them into the market (although this is a forbidden practice) among other factors that will be discussed next. 2.2 What happened in the last 150 years? Changes in food systems were particular important after the Second World War especially in the Western countries. In spite of all the progress that had been achieved with the super phosphates NPK (created by Liebig, 1803-1873) and increased efficiency in mechanization, some other drivers of change gained importance through the decades.
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 12 Figure 2: Changes in Food Systems Source: Kennedy, G. et al (2006, 1-26) Some of the drivers of change, which deeply influence the food systems, are presented in a study by Kennedy (2006, 1-26) organized in 4 groups: economic, social, dietarian and food supply. These are mainly influenced by globalization which has had a particular impact on the growing spread of the western diet and way of life in general among less developed countries. These four groups are as follows: (1) Economic drivers such as urbanization, which has consumed part of the agricultural land and introduces different life styles; market liberalization and foreign direct investment, that introduces new products, often contrasting with the cultural and societal characteristics of the country; and increase in incomes, which supports a different consumption pattern. (2) Social drivers induced by the flow of people from rural to urban areas looking for new job opportunities; employment of women, who work outside their homes, and have no time to prepare meals for the family as their ancestors used to do (with fresh products, cooked every day). The food industry responded to this reality with products long shelf-life, such as lyophilized products (powder soups) pre-cooked frozen meals and an array of products, some of them with added preservatives to extend their shelf period; sedentary lifestyles and increased intake of fat, animal protein, sugar and salt, that contribute to an increase in overweight and obesity among other "diseases of civilization", such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, affecting these populations. Capon defines modern civilization "as societies with the characteristics of ecological phase 4 - the high-consumption phase of human civilization. Some people in every country on Earth (whether living in the East, West, North or South) currently live in this way". According to Global Burden of Disease (GBD), an Independent American Research Organism, 34000 people die per year from cancer in the world due to a diet too rich in transformed meat (sausages, etc.) and 50 000 die per year due to an excess of red meat (Science et Avenir, 2016, 36). Animal Liberation - a new ethics for our treatment of animals, a book by Peter Singer (1975) seduced many to become vegetarian, mainly in the protestant countries (Switzerland, United Kingdom and Germany) where about 10% of the population are vegetarian (Science et Avenir, 2016, 35-36). However a single day in the week, as it is the case in countries such as Belgium with the Vegetarian Thursday (Jeudi Vegetarian) would be a good contribution to health
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 13 and environment, as it will be argued further. Indeed with the same amount of cereals necessary to feed one person with meat, we can feed seven with bread and more than 20 people with germinated seeds (www.mapn.ca). (3) Dietarian Changes: even in countries acknowledged by UNESCO as representatives of a Mediterranean Diet, which is presented as an intangible cultural heritage of Humanity, these changes have been visible, as shown below in the energetic profile of the Portuguese Agri-Nutritional Model between 1961 and 2002, having for bases the Western Model (100%). Compared to 1961, it is clear in 2002 there is increase in the consumption of starchy roots, animal fats, meat and eggs, milk and dairy products. The high proportion of fish and seafood (although slightly less than in 1961) are a characteristic of the Mediterranean diet, the Portuguese being one of those in the world with a higher consumption of these items, some of which are also endangered and thus, fish catches, such as sardines, have been from time to time temporarily suspended to allow the fish stocks to recover. The amount of grain needed to feed one person per year on a meat-based diet is 930 Kgs but only 180 Kgs on a grain-based diet (Millstone et al, 2003, 34) and the reduction in consumption of meat does not render the diet poorer. Gordon Ramsay, for instance, a distinguished chef with several Michelin stars and well-known for his TV programs, praises Vietnamese dietarian pattern as being healthy, since they use a large diversity of fresh salads and fruits and reduced consumption of meat, poultry and fish. Figure 3: Energetic Profile of the Portuguese Agri-Nutritional Model Source: FAO (2005) and Malassis et al (1982) A reduction in the consumption of meat would represent a saving in water and fossil fuel, as illustrated in Table 1. Water (Liters) Fossil Fuel (Calories) 100 grams beef 25,000 33,3 100 grams wheat 25 0,46 Table 1: Amount of water and energy used to produce beef and wheat Source: Adapted from Millstone et al (2003, 35)
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 14 According to FAO, a global demand for livestock products will increase by 70% by 2050 and the livestock sector contributes to human-induced GHG emissions for 14.5% and is a large user of natural resources (accessed the 28th April 2016 at http://www.fao.org/livestock-environment/en/) which constitutes a collateral threat to the survival of human life on Earth. Chakravorty (2016, 12-13) gives China as an example of a nation where a cereals- based diet is moving towards being more dependent on animal protein, namely meat and dairy products. China consumes today half of the world's pork and its consumption of this meat has been growing at a rate of 150% a year since 2007. This author writes that "on average, eight kilograms of cereals (as feed) produce one kilogram of beef, and three kilograms of cereals produce one kilogram of pork. As more people start consuming animal products, they exert pressure on limited arable land resources, and food prices rise over time". Figures 4 and 5: Slow and Fast Food Wet Market in Hanoi, Vietnam and Macdonald's in Nanjing, China (Author: Ana Firmino) The figures above explain why the predicted increase in the consumption of meat is foreseen with much concern and drive some authors to question the meat consumption. In the European Union 75% of agricultural land is used for growing animal feed (Millstone et al, 2003). The growing demand for biofuels renders the competition for land to produce cereals for this purpose more fierce. (3) The Food Supply: In the last decades the food supply has been constantly challenged to produce based on intensive agriculture, develop long product shelf-life, offer year-round availability of food and where supermarkets have replaced the wet markets. In practice the changes in diets together with the fast growth of population put pressure on farm efficiency, i. e. the farmer has to produce more (intensification often without taking into consideration the carrying capacity of the different ecosystems and thus creating environmental problems typical of the chemical-industrial food systems, as described by Weis (2007) driving to a drastic reduction in the area necessary to feed one human being, which in 1960 accounted for 0,45ha, in 2000 was only 0,25 ha and in 2050 shall be achieved in only 0,15 ha (1500m2) increasing the yield per area of arable land, calculated today in 1400 million hectares. This is due to the fact that the
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 15 enlargement of the area for future cropping is conditioned by either policies aiming at protecting tropical forests or by the reduction in the agricultural area (estimated in 8 or 9 million ha/year) due to erosion, salinization of irrigated soils (between 15 and 20% of these soils) and exhaustion of land due to loss of fertility. Urban sprawl and climate change tend to render this situation still worse in the years to come (Data selected from Charvet, 2012, 18-19). Concomitantly the number of farmers has been decreasing. Kirschenmann (2000) quoting the United States Department of Agriculture, says that in the 1930s one American farmer produced enough agricultural product to feed only himself and three other eaters. The report "A Briefing on the Status of Rural America", published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 2010, shows that the number of people fed annually by one American farmer steadily increased over the years (Figure 3). Figure 6: Number of People fed by one American Farmer (1940 – 2010) Data Source: USDA (2010) However, the calculations do not take into consideration the changes that occurred over the years in the dietarian habits that include more diversity of products (some of which imported) the increase in the consumption of meat that demands more cereal for animal feed, and produce used for other purposes such as biofuels. According to David Swenson, an Iowa State University economist, about 40 percent of the USA's corn crop is used to produce ethanol. He admitted that "the statistic isn't perfect, but it provides a consistent look at the effect of farm production and reliance on farmers over the past several decades" (accessed the 20th January 2016, http://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/government/fact-check/fact-check-reynolds- says-one-iowa-farmer-feeds-155-people-worldwide-20140524). Chakravorty (2016, 13) predicts that "out of the approximately 200 million hectares of new land devoted to agriculture by 2022, 80 million can be attributed to the biofuel mandates". Moreover he adds that cellulosic biofuels may be crucial to the viability of biofuels in the United States, "since they are less land-intensive than corn ethanol". 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 16 2.3 Petropolis "Petropolis" emerges with the generalization of cheap transportation and intense trade exchanges in the framework of globalization, being responsible for the fast growing emissions of greenhouse gas and rendering traceability of the products often difficult. As Millstone et al (2003, 66) write "the price of sending food by sea fell by over 70 percent between 1980 and 2000, while air freight prices are falling by 3 to 4 percent every year". This is only possible because emissions resulting from international air freight and sea freight are not taken into consideration in national inventories and the Kyoto Protocol does not include them in its targets. Besides the damage caused to the environment and to human health by pollution are not taken into account, nor are reflected in the price of food, as well as other externalities resulting from food production intensification, loss of food sovereignty, changes in food patterns and degradation of food landscapes. Millstone et al (2003, 67) give examples of vegetables that travel long distances to reach the market. Lettuces, for instance, travelling from California to London, are responsible for the production of 5 kg of CO2 per kilo of product. Besides this makes it quite inefficient in terms of energy since 1 unit of lettuce energy takes 127 units of fuel energy just for transportation. For those concerned with their ecological footprint, food miles are for sure a matter of concern! Insofar as the agricultural sector has been able to produce enough food to nourish the world population, as many authors have asserted in their publications (Parmentier, 2007; Tudge, 2007, for instance). However hunger prevails and food safety is questioned (Bodin-Rodier, D. et al, 1997; Boyens, I., 1999; Dowler, E. et al, 2003; Madeley, J., 2002; Rémésy, C., 2005; Petit, M., 2011; Weis, T., 2007, to mention only a few). Modern agriculture has definitely been able to produce enough food for a growing world population but it has not been able to fight back hunger because this "is not a consequence of overall scarcity, but of unequal access to land, technology, education and employment opportunities, coupled with a whole range of socio-economic and environmental factors" (Millstone et al, 2008, 20). Great achievements were possible with the Green Revolution, but also in this case social inequalities were generated that increased the number of poor. Besides the success in increasing productions has been possible mainly due to the heavy use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, responsible for the pollution of air, soil and water, as well as the depletion of natural resources, decrease in biodiversity, wasted water and eroded soil with the consequent disturbance of ecosystems visible also in the impact on landscapes. David Pimentel has published important information during his career about the energy expenditure to produce, process, distribute and prepare food. He estimates that food production in the USA needs 17% of the total energy used in that country. He argues that with supplies of fossil fuel declining and becoming more expensive, alternative technologies and diets should be adopted in order to produce ecological and social benefits (Pimentel, 1984, 3-9). He concludes that "all through the food production system, currently used methods of preservation and packaging as well as transportation must be studied and re-evaluated in order to determine the most energy- efficient methods that produce high quality and nutritious foods" (idem, 9).
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 17 2.4 Ecopolis It is under this scenario that the concept of "Ecopolis - an ecologically as well as economically restorative city - becomes relevant. It proposes a new integration of the human habitat within its local environment. A new emphasis on regional food needs to be augmented with local, renewable, modern energy supplies" (https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/assets/boell.de/images/download_de/Girardet_r egenerative_citys.pdf, accessed on the 24th April 2016). Girardet (2011) responsible for the concept of Ecopolis, has worked in Adelaide (Australia), an example of how it is possible to implement resilience and environmental regeneration, creating at the same time jobs in the framework of a green economy. The Ecologist presents Adelaide (1,251 Million inhabitants) as an emergent regenerative city where the production of 180,000 tons of compost a year, made from the city's organic waste, is used to increase the fertility and soil structure of 20,000 hectares of land in the outskirts of the city, where most of the fruit and vegetables, consumed by the local population are produced and irrigated with reclaimed waste- water (accessed on the 24th April, 2016) http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/2000416/ecopolis_the_emergence_of _regenerative_cities.html The example of Cuba is a classic, particularly as to what concerns the urban food production with "organoponico" gardens in the city of Havana. In this country over 117,000 people produce food in over 35,000 hectares of urban land, providing enough production to guarantee a minimum of 300 grams of fresh vegetables per day, which is considered by FAO as adequate for optimum health (idem). 3. Challenges to food systems: some prevailing myths and threats Malthus (1766-1834) in his Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) expressed his concern that the population growth would lead to a global epidemic famine due to the collapse of food systems, unable to feed so many mouths. His premonition fortunately has not come true so far, since today enough food is produced to feed every human being, although population growth continues to be a challenge to the food production. FAO, for instance, estimates that agricultural production must increase by about 60% by 2050 in order to feed a larger population. (accessed the 24th April 2016 at http://www.fao.org/world-food-day/2016/theme/en/). But not only food matters. According to IFPRI's estimations (2006), a growing interest in the expansion of biofuels up to 2050, can increase the number of malnourished pre-school children, that could be 3 million higher in sub-Saharan Africa and 1.7 million higher in South Asia than would otherwise be the case. The same study also estimated that investment in research for productivity growth could significantly reduce the negative effect of biofuel production on food availability. However other threats should not be minimized as it will be presented next.
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 18 3.1 Bioengineering: hope and risk Agricultural/biological engineering and bioengineering are presented as "fields that integrate the principles of biological and physical sciences and use them to solve agricultural and environmental problems. Engineers in these fields design systems and equipment that increase agricultural productivity and food safety. They also manage and conserve soil, water, air, energy, and other agricultural resources" (http://www.princetonreview.com/college-majors/417/agricultural-biological- engineering-bioengineering, accessed the 18th May 2016). However the attempt to produce more quantity more quickly puts research under a great constraint, since investments in their projects are huge and investors wish to see returns in the short term. Thus often bioengineered products are launched in the market before there is sufficient period of trial to evaluate their potential effects on people's health and environment. In spite of the precautionary principle, put in force in the European Environmental Bases Law, which determines that in case of doubt about the security of a product, this should not be used, even if there is not yet enough evidence of being harmful, food products have been traded making all of us guinea pigs of these developments. Canotilho, a renowned Portuguese jurist and State's counsellor, refers to the production of genetic modified maize as follows: "It is feared that genetically modified maize may be harmful to one's health. It is too soon and there is not yet enough research which allows us to be sure that no harm will come to people and animals. Any measure taken, namely banning production and importing genetically modified maize, is based on the precautionary principle ..." (Canotilho, 1998, 49, translated in Firmino, 2009, 171-172). Even authors like Comstock, who defends the right of people to adopt biotechnology, concludes: "assuming that we will act with responsibility and appropriate precaution" (Comstock, 2004, 231). Definitely this is not what often happens! Co-existence measures are, of course, possible, but according to Silva (2003, 97), costs to avoid contamination would increase up to 41% for the farmers involved, since these would have to install hedges, adopt different periods of planting to avoid crossbreeding, use certified seeds and rent certified machinery. In the meanwhile biodiversity keeps being threatened! Besides GMO's, some other innovations can be a risk to our health, such as the variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), a rare and fatal human neurodegenerative condition, that has been strongly linked to the consumption of food of bovine origin contaminated with the agent of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), a disease of cattle which is thought to be caused by a prion, i.e. a protein, that was incorporated into cattle feed due to meat and bone meal being produced from animal carcasses. To protect human health, WHO has recommended that "no tissue that is likely to contain the BSE agent, nor part or product of any animal which has shown signs of a TSE should enter the (human or animal) food chain. All countries should ban the use of ruminant tissues in ruminant feed" (accessed on the 18th May 2016, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs180/en/). Although sometimes these problems are hardly perceived in advance, curiously,
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 19 during a conference in 1923, Rudolf Steiner, mentor of the Bio-Dynamic Agriculture, described what would happen to a bull, if it were to be fed with meat: this would produce harmful substances which once introduced in its brain would render it mad (in Wolff, 2000, 21; Steiner, R. 1983). Thus, at that time it was already predictable, at least by Steiner! Finally, although increase in production is often argued as being the main requirement for feeding a growing population, and bioengineering represents the hope to contradict Malthus' theory that agriculture would not be able to achieve this goal, hunger remains, not for lack of food at the world level but due to a bad wealth distribution and access to food, that are responsible for the 1 billion hungry people today (IAAKSTD, 2009). 3.2 Climate Change Climate change is an important factor, representing a real threat to food security due to its adverse effects. Baas writes that “over the last 30 years the occurrence of natural disaster has constantly risen … particularly climate-, weather- and water related hazards, such as floods and droughts” affecting annually about 230 million people (Baas, 2015, 100). This is in line with some of the preoccupations expressed by the UN Climate Change Conference, COP 22, which will take place from 7-18 November 2016 in Marrakech, Morocco. As shown in Figure 7, the losses projected by 2080 in rainfed cereal production will affect mainly and dramatically the poorest countries in the world. FAO launched the slogan "Climate is changing. Food and Agriculture must too"! to raise the awareness of people that agriculture and food systems must become more resilient, productive and sustainable, as the only way to ensure wellbeing of ecosystems and rural populations and reduce emissions. They recommend the adoption of practices that produce more with less in the same area of land and use natural resources wisely (http://www.fao.org/world-food- day/2016/home/en/). FAO also exhorts countries to include food and agriculture in their climate action plans and invest more in rural development. Figure 7: Projected percentage gain and losses in rainfed cereal production potential by 2080 Source: UNEP (2006, 30)
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 20 The resilience of smallholder farmers is particularly important in order to guarantee food security for the planet's increasingly hungry global population and reduce emissions, as recognized by Pimentel (1984). 3.3 Food Waste Food losses represent a waste of resources used in production such as land, water, energy and inputs, increasing the green gas emissions in vain (FAO, http://www.fao.org/food-loss-and-food-waste/en/). According to FAO one-third of all food produced worldwide for human consumption is lost or wasted globally, which amounts to about 1.3 billion tons per year. Food is lost or wasted throughout the supply chain, from initial agricultural production down to final household consumption. In developing countries food is primarily lost due to inadequate infrastructure, while in more developed countries food waste is the main problem in the marketing and consumption. This amount of lost or wasted food each year is worth around US$1 trillion and it could feed about 870 million people who are going hungry each day (accessed on the 20th May, http://www.thinkeatsave.org/docs/TES_FoodKit%20ToolKit_WEB.pdf). Is it acceptable that 1.4 billion hectares of land - 28 per cent of the world's agricultural area - is used annually to produce food that is never eaten? Thus the pertinence of the Campaign "Zero Hunger Challenge", launched by the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki- moon, at the Rio+20 Conference, in which zeroing food loss and waste is one of the main goals. In line with the previous recommendations FAO appeals to the reduction of "food losses before the final product or retail stage through a number of initiatives including better harvesting, storage, packing, transport, infrastructure, market mechanisms, as well as institutional and legal frameworks" (http://www.fao.org/food-loss-and-food- waste/en/, accessed on the 20th May 2016). In Europe, Italy has led a movement called "Milan Urban Food Policy Pact", a protocol that was signed in October 2015, during the World Food Day ceremony at Expo Milan and was presented to the UN Secretary-General, by mayors committed to develop "sustainable food systems that grant healthy and accessible food to all, protect biodiversity and reduce food waste" (accessed on the 20th May 2016, http://www.fao.org/world-food-day/2016/events-2016/en/). Next October, mayors from about 100 cities all over the world will meet at FAO in Rome, to discuss their experiences in developing sustainable food systems in cities worldwide, and share best practices. FAO will establish indicators that will measure the impact of the Pact, and by exchanging best practices among cities (accessed on the 20th May 2016 at http://www.fao.org/world-food-day/2016/theme/en/).
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 21 4. Societies in transition Movements such as Slow Food, Agroecology, Permaculture, Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) and other initiatives, they all contribute to a transition that is happening almost imperceptibly in several parts of the world, and can be illustrated with the example of Totnes, in UK, founded in 2006. It was the first transition town and became known through its mentor Rob Hopkins (2008). Today it is part of a network involving thousands of communities around the world. They present themselves as communities that "have started up projects in areas of food, transport, energy, education, housing, waste, arts, etc. as small-scale local responses to the global challenges of climate change, economic hardship and shrinking supplies of cheap energy. Together, these small-scale responses make up something much bigger, and help show the way forward for governments, business and the rest of us" (https://transitionnetwork.org/, accessed on the 20th May 2016). Rob Hopkins (2008) has contributed positively to the shift of paradigm with "The Transition Handbook: from oil dependence to local resilience", that enhanced a silent and resilient revolution. The book gives guidelines as how to prepare a shift from a society based on oil to a more sustainable one: "We live in an oil-dependent world, and have got to this level of dependency in a very short space of time, using vast reserves of oil in the process - without planning for when the supply is not so plentiful. Most of us avoid thinking about what happens when oil runs out (or becomes prohibitively expensive), but The Transition Handbook shows how the inevitable and profound changes ahead can have a positive outcome. These changes can lead to the rebirth of local communities, which will grow more of their own food, generate their own power, and build their own houses using local materials. They can also encourage the development of local currencies, to keep money in the local area" (available at: https://transitionnetwork.org/support/publications/transition-handbook). This shift in paradigm is also represented in the concept of regenerative cities or Ecopolis, as defended by Girardet (2011) i.e. a city, which integrates habitat in its local environment, satisfies the regional food needs based on local, renewable energies and creates positive externalities at the ecological, economic and social level, such as Adelaide, in Australia, whose Metropolitan Area has over a million inhabitants and is an example of regenerative urban development, as mentioned before. How is this achieved? In short, by making an efficient use of energy, supporting a "solar-city" development, water efficiency, zero waste, local food, sustainable transport, Nature in the city, green business and a culture of restorative urbanization (adapted from Girardet, 2011). According to Girardet "the challenge today is no longer just to create sustainable cities but truly regenerative cities: to ensure that they do not just become resource- efficient and low carbon emitting, but that they positively enhance rather than undermine the ecosystem services they receive from beyond their boundaries" (Girardet, 2011, 3). Creating regenerative cities thus primarily means one thing: Initiating comprehensive political, financial and technological strategies for an environmentally enhancing, restorative relationship between cities and the ecosystems from which they draw resources for their sustenance (ibid, 4). Former traditional societies in the developing countries are opening up to "globalization", transforming their production system, market supply and consumption
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 22 pattern. Thus the impact in these countries will also be felt sooner or later but, as Rostow (1990) explained, due to the knowledge proportioned by the "pioneers", their evolution into the next stage will be quicker. On the other hand, also in these countries, some consumers already value the quality products and are concerned with their health and the environment, because in a globalized world they are influenced by what is going on elsewhere. Recently, April, 2015, in Milan, the Global Alliance Conference compiled several materials for discussion in their sessions, which give much information about what is being done to support agroecological movements and food systems all over the world (http://www.newfieldfound.org/pdfs/PathwaysResources-April192015.pdf). Miguel Altieri, in a study dating from December 2011, about the impacts of organic farming in the Third World, stated that 85% of the peasants are practicing this mode of production in less than 2 ha. The study shows that by using traditional methods and their own seeds, without any chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, African peasants were able to reduce irrigation and multiply by two the average agricultural incomes (in Wirz, 2012, 15). His findings are in line with the studies that David Pimentel at Cornell University has published, using a calorie formula to determine overall food system efficiency. Pimentel found that when calculating all the energy necessary to produce food, from the field to the table, industrial agriculture is not very efficient, since it requires about 10 calories of energy to produce every calorie of food that we will eat. He concludes that local food systems, using less processing and packaging, are much more efficient. Also Tudge (2007, 136) praises local produce, as well as self-reliance and fair trade. He writes that "the only way out for poor countries is autonomy: not to be beholden to rich countries that basically are not on their side, and deep down prefer them to be relatively poor". Besides, as Breimyer writes (1978, 310-311): "in a grand contradiction of all that has been taught about carrying modern technology to agriculture everywhere, it is possible that as fossil-fuel energy becomes scarcer and more costly, those nations that have not converted to heavy reliance on it may be relatively better able to adjust. The western industrial nations - the "developed" ones - may find themselves losing status economically and politically. They will face the greater problems of accommodating higher costs of fossil-energy, for they have relied on that energy source so heavily in the past". Miguel Altieri has long worked with traditional communities and is responsible for projects based on agroecology, which he presents as the solution to hunger and food security, due to its ecological, small scale, local and urban farming (see, for instance, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2yFvD8wuLmU). He is not the only one believing in this. FAO Director-General José Graziano da Silva, in the opening of the 24th session of the Committee on Agriculture (COAG) on the 29th September 2014, called the attention of policy makers, acknowledging that "we cannot rely on an input intensive model to increase production and that the solutions of the past have shown their limits". He calls for a "paradigm shift" that ensures an "overhauling global food system, making them healthier and more sustainable", i. e. that
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 23 are able to "lower the use of inputs, especially water and chemicals, in order to put agriculture, forestry and fisheries on a more sustainable and productive long-term path". He recommends that "options such as agro-ecology and climate-smart agriculture should be explored, and so should biotechnology and the use of genetically modified organisms", noting that food production needs to grow by 60% by 2050 to meet the expected demand from an anticipated population of 9 billion people (adapted from http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/250148/icode, accessed on the 20th April 2016). This co-existence between agroecology and genetically modified organisms (GMO's) defended by Mr. da Silva seems difficult and controversial, since contamination is undermining biodiversity and restraining other modes of production such as organic farming and bio-dynamic agriculture, as Johannes Wirz denounces (Wirz, 2012, p. 14- 15). This dispute about GMO's shows how, even among Northern countries, the values and decisions about food production can diverge. Recently (3.10.2015) a European Commission rule allowed its members to request the opt-out option, full or partially, i. e. the possibility to abstain from growing GMO crops, such as Monsanto´s GM maize MON 810, even though this had been allowed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for use and cultivation in the EU. 5. Conclusions After travelling from Agropolis up to Ecopolis it is clear that the food issue cannot be uprooted from a more complex and broader context. Physical, social, economic and political factors affect the production, distribution and access to food, but we as consumers and conscious citizens can make the difference. As stated in the Milano Charter of Food (http://carta.milano.it/en/) "only our collective action as citizens, together with civil society, businesses and local, national and international institutions, will make it possible to overcome the major challenges related to food: combating undernutrition, malnutrition and waste, promoting equitable access to natural resources and ensuring sustainable management of production processes". It is thus our duty as "consum'actors" (active consumers, as defined by Rimsky- Korsakov, 2003) to play a role to mitigate the effects of climate change, by making choices that can contribute to decreasing the "food miles" and support the local production (proximity economy). Furthermore, "by being conscientious or ethical consumers and changing simple day- to-day decisions, for example, by wasting less food, or eating less meat and more nutritious pulses, we can reduce our environmental footprint and make a difference" as FAO argues (http://www.fao.org/world-food-day/2016/theme/en/, accessed on the 18th May 2016). In a previous work entitled "Food and Consumption: how a meal can change the world" (Firmino, 2014) it was also argued that as a consequence of this new pattern of consumption, not only the hygienic and nutritional characteristics of the products and prices are important factors in the moment of choice but also the mode of production (organic farming), the distance to the market, the direct sale in a short cycle, the
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 24 traceability, the history and edapho-climatic characteristics (le terroir according to the French!), the respect for the human and animals rights, the solidarity towards poor farmers in developing countries (Fair Trade) and the respect for those who produce what we eat. Last but not the least, several cities around the world are engaged in building food systems anchored to sustainability and social justice, as it is the case of the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact signed by 75 cities. FAO and RUAF foundation, support these initiatives offering a "Food for cities Programme: building food secure and resilient city regions", and "City Food Tools" (FAO and RUAF, n/d). This will contribute to build sustainable and resilient city regions, lowering the pressure on the farmers in the rural areas and fighting back the dichotomy between urban and rural, that has supported the established model of development in favor of an "urban rural continuum in all regions, with mutually reinforcing and reciprocal relationships, and flows of resources, people and information" as defended by Forster and Escudero (2014, 7). As Pierce wrote (1990, 313) "Sustainable development over the long term is not a choice but an imperative for society. If we fail to make the conscious transition, the choice will be made for us - for sustainable development is a self-enforcing process capable of achieving its own equilibrium". The transition is on its way and we should try to make part of it as soon as possible on behalf of the Planet Earth and all its inhabitants, i.e. of ourselves! 6. References Andrews G. (2008), The Slow Food Story: Politics and Pleasure, London, Pluto. Bauman Z. (2001), The Individualized Society, Cambridge, Polity Press. Beck U. (1998), Word Risk Society, Cambridge, Polity Press. Bennett T., Gayo-Cal M.,.LeRoux B., Rouanet H., Savage M., Silva E., Warde A., Wright D. (2013), Distinction Revisited: Mapping British lifestyles in 2003, in. Coulangeon P., Duval J. (eds.), Trente ans après la Distinction de Pierre Bourdieu, Paris, La Découverte. 179-205. Bourdieu P. (1979), La distinction: critique sociale du jugement, Paris, Minuit. Dahlgren P.(1995), Television and Public Sphere, London, Sage. Douglas M. (1996), Thought styles: Critical essays on good taste, London, Sage. Fischler C. (1988), Food, Self and Identity, in Social Science Information, 27, 275-293. Fischler C. (1990), L’Homnivore. Le gout, la cuisine et le corps, Paris, Odile Jacob. Habermas J. (1989), The Structural Transformation of Public Sphere, Cambridge, MIT Press. Kluckhon C (1952), Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, New York, Vintage Press.
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 25 Lipovetsky G. (2006), Le Bonheur Paradoxal. Essai sur la société d’hyperconsommation, Paris, Gallimard. Low J., Malacrida C. (2008), Sociology of the body: a reader, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Malinowski B. (1944), A Scientific Theory of Culture and Others Essays, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press. Martinengo M.C. (2015), Lo spreco alimentare domestico nella società della post- crescita: valori ed interessi individuali, in E. Varese (ed.), Sprechi alimentari: una prospettiva multidisciplinare, Torino, Giappichelli, 156-175, Montanari M. (2007), Il cibo come cultura, Bari, Laterza. Baas, S. (2015), Disaster Risk and Crisis: challenges for food and nutrition security, in Kraas, F. et al (Eds.), IGC Cologne 2012: Down to Earth, 95-103, Kölner Geographische Arbeiten, 95, Köln/Cologne, Germany. Bieleman, J. (1992), Geschiedenis van de landbouw in Nederland 1500 - 1950 (Dutch agricultural history 1500 - 1950), Boom, Meppel, The Netherlands. Bodin-Rodier, D.; Blanchet, J. (1997), La Stratégie agro-alimentaire mondiale, les enjeux du XXIe siècle, Armand Colin, Masson, Paris, France. Boyens, I. (1999), Unnatural Harvest – how corporate science is secretely altering our food, Doubleday Canada Limited, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Breimyer, H. (1978), The Food-Energy Balance, in Ensminger, D. (Ed.) (1978) Food enough or starvation for millions, p. 303 – 311, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, India. Canotilho, J. J. (Coord.), (1998), Introdução ao Direito do Ambiente, Universidade Aberta, Lisbon, Portugal. Capon, Anthony G. (n/d), Diseases of modern civilization, Contemporary human health issues, http://www.natsoc.org.au/our-projects/biosensitivefutures/part-4-facts-and- principles/human-health-issues/diseases-of-modern-civilisation (accessed May, 18, 2016). Chakravorty, U. (2016), The Impacts of Biofuel Mandates on Food Prices and Emissions, in Resources, nº 191, winter 2016, 12–13, Resources for the Future, Washington, USA. Charvet, J.-P. (2012), Atlas de l’Agriculture, Comment nourrir le monde en 2010, Éditions Autrement, Collection Atlas/Monde, nouvelle édition augmentée, Paris, France. Comstock, G. (2004), A Ética e os Alimentos Geneticamente Modificados, in Rosa, H. (Coord.) (2004) Bioética para as Ciências Naturais, p. 203-233, Fundação Luso- Americana, Lisboa, Portugal. Dowler, E. ; Finer, C. J. (2003), The Welfare of Food, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK. Ensminger, D. (Ed.) (1978), Food enough or starvation for millions, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, India. FAO and RUAF (n/d), A Vision for City Region Food Systems, building sustainable and
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 26 resilient city regions, with the support of German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture and Fondation Daniel & Nina Carasso. FAO (2005), FAOSTAT – National Data, http://webcitation.org/getfile?fileid=11ba36ce290516f412772223b0692c3cbfefd697 Firmino, A. (2014), Food and Consumption: How a Meal can Change the World, in Editors: Mary Cawley, Ana Maria Bicalho, Lucette Laurens, The Sustainability of Rural Systems: global and local challenges and opportunities, Publisher: Whitaker Institute, NUI Galway and CSRS of the International Geographical Union, Ireland. Firmino, A. (2009), GMO's: Genetics Maculating Organics?, in Frutos, L; Climent, E., Ruiz, E., Bicalho, A.; Laurens, L. (Editors), New Ruralities and Sustainable Use of Territory, Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain, p. 167-175. Forster, T.; Escudero, A. (2014), City Regions as Landscapes for People, Food and Nature, Landscape for People, Food and Nature Initiative, Washington, D.C. USA. Girardet, H. (2011), Creating Regenerative Cities, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, Berlin, Germany. Hopkins, R. (2008), The Transition Handbook. From Oil Dependency to Local Resilience, Green Books, Cambridge, UK. IAAKSTD (2009), Agriculture at a Crossroads, International Assessment of Agriculture Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development, http://www.unep.org/dewa/agassessment/reports/IAASTD/EN/Agriculture%20at%20a %20Crossroads_Synthesis%20Report%20(English).pdf IFPRI (2006), How to Feed the World in 2050, accessed on 25th May, 2016 at http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_Wor ld_in_2050.pdf Johnston, R. (2005), Geography and the Social Science Tradition, chapter 3 in Holloway, S. et al (Editors) (2005) Key Concepts in Geography, SAGE Publications, London, pp. 50-71, UK. Kennedy, G. et al (2006) Globalization of Food Systems in developing countries: impact on food security and nutrition, FAO, Rome, Italy. Kirschenmann, F. (2000), How many Farms will we need?, Winter 2000 issue of the Leopold Letter, a quarterly publication of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University, USA. Madeley, J. (2002), Food for All – the need for a new agriculture, Zed Books, London, UK. Malassis, L. and Padilla, M. (1982), Typologie mondiale des modèles de consommation alimentaire, ENSA-INRA-IAM, Montpellier, France. Malthus, T. (1998), Essay on the Principle of Population, Electronic Scholarly Publishing Project, http://www.esp.org Millstone, E.; Lang, T. (2003), The Atlas of Food, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London, UK. Parmentier, B. (2007), Nourrir l’Humanité – les grands problèmes de l’agriculture
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 27 mondiale au XXIe siècle, La Découverte, Paris, France. Petit, M. (2011), Pour une agriculture mondiale productive et durable, Éditions Quae, Versailles, France. Pierce, J. (1990), The Food Resource, Longman Scientific and Technical, Essex, England. Pimentel, D. (1984), Energy alternatives in the Food System: Ecological and Social Aspects, in Knorr, Dietrich and Watkins, Tom (Editors), Alterations in Food Production, p. 3 - 10, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc., New York, USA. Rémésy, C. (2005), Que mangerons-nous demain? Odile Jacob, Paris, France. Rimsky-Korsakoff, J.-P. (2003), Au-delà du bio: la consom'action, Éditions Yves Michel, Barret-sur-Méouge, France. Rostow, W. W. (1990), The Stages of Economic Growth: a Non-Communist Manifesto, Cambridge University Press, 3rd Ed., UK. Silva, M. (2003), Alimentos Transgénicos – um guia para consumidores cautelosos, Campus do Saber, Universidade Católica Editora, Lisboa, Portugal. Singer, P. (1975), Animal Liberation – a new ethics for our treatment of animals, Pimlico, London, UK. Steiner, R. (1983), Über Gesundheit und Krankheit, GA 348, Rudolf Stiener Verlag, Dornach, Switzerland. Tudge, C. (2007), Feeding People is Easy, Pari Publishing, Pari, Italy. UNEP (2006), How to Feed the World in 2050, accessed on 25th May, 2016 at http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_Wor ld_in_2050.pdf USDA. (2010), A Briefing on the Status of Rural America," U.S. Department of Agriculture, USA, available at: http://www.usda.gov/documents/Briefing_on_the_Status_of_Rural_America_Low_Res _Cover_update_map.pdf Weis, T. (2007), The Global Food Economy: The Battle for the Future of Farming, Zed Books, London, UK. Wirz, J. (2012), Les événements de l'époque, une source de forces, in Das Goetheanum nº 17, 28 avril 2012, p. 14-16, Dornach, Switzerland. Wolff, O. (2000), O que comemos afinal? Editora Antroposófica, Limitada, São Paulo, Brazil. Other Publications Science et Avenir, nr. 832, June, 2016 Web Altieri, Miguel: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2yFvD8wuLmU .
Geoprogress Journal, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2016, Ed. Geoprogress 28 Bioengineering: http://www.princetonreview.com/college-majors/417/agricultural- biological-engineering-bioengineering, accessed the 18th May 2016. Cities in Transition: https://transitionnetwork.org/, accessed on the 20th May 2016. David Swenson: http://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/government/fact-check/fact- check-reynolds-says-one-iowa-farmer-feeds-155-people-worldwide-20140524, accessed on the 20th January 2016. Ecopolis: https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/assets/boell.de/images/download_de/Girardet_regen erative_citys.pdf, accessed on the 24th April 2016. FAO: World Agriculture 2030, main findings, http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/news/2002/7833-en.html FAO: http://www.fao.org/food-loss-and-food-waste/en/, accessed on the 20th May 2016). FAO: http://www.fao.org/livestock-environment/en/, accessed on the 28th April 2016. FAO: http://www.fao.org/world-food-day/2016/theme/en/, accessed on the 24th April 2016. Food Loss: http://www.thinkeatsave.org/docs/TES_FoodKit%20ToolKit_WEB.pdf, accessed on the 20th May. Global Alliance Conference: http://www.newfieldfound.org/pdfs/PathwaysResources- April192015.pdf Graziano da Silva: http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/250148/icode, accessed on the 20th April 2016. Iowa Farm Bureau: http://www.iowafarmbureau.com/public/113/ag-in-your- life/fooditicisms involving it. Médecins aux Pieds Nus, Canada: www.mapn.ca Milano Charter of Food: http://carta.milano.it/en/ Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack's 2010 Briefing on the Status of Rural America: http://www.usda.gov/documents/Briefing_on_the_Status_of_Rural_America_Low_Res_Co ver_update_map.pdf The Ecologist: (accessed on the 24th April, 2016) http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/2000416/ecopolis_the_emergence_of_reg enerative_cities.html U.S. Farms and Farmers 2012 Census of Agriculture report highlights: http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2012/Preliminary_Report/Highlights.pdf USDA 2012 Census of Agriculture Farm Demographics: http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2012/Online_Resources/Highlights/Farm_Dem ographics/ USDA: National Directory of Farmers Markets, https://www.ams.usda.gov/local-food- directories/farmersmarkets WHO: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs180/en/, accessed on the 18th May 2016.
72 498 Firmino, A. (2015). STONES: FUNCTIONALITIES AND SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPES. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 10(3), 189–196.
73 498 189 Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, August 2015, Vol. 10, No 3, p. 189 - 196 STONES: FUNCTIONALITIES AND SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPES Ana FIRMINO Universidade Nova de Lisboa, FCSH, CICS.NOVA, Av. de Berna, 26 – C, 1069-061 Lisboa, Portugal, am.firmino@fcsh.unl.pt Abstract: Stones play an important role in the construction of landscapes. Stones are a relict and a testimony of ancient or modern territorial processes that dictated their genesis and hold records of past climate changes that give us evidences about the development of the Earth. Stones are also one of the most common materials used by humans in different contexts. This paper illustrates the potential of stone landscapes as catalysts for territorial change and sustainable development even in remote areas experiencing community problems. The results presented here stem from a project carried out at e-Geo (Centre of Research in Geography and Regional Planning, now CICS.NOVA) – HOPE (Hope on People’s Efforts), within the Municipality of Almeida (North Portugal). The ultimate aim of the HOPE project is to promote the area in sustainable touristic terms, providing evidence of the granite landscapes not only as a scenic resource but also as a basis for future innovative initiatives, such as a geopark for children, since many of the monoliths look like animals. An interpretation centre could be built, supplying information about the stones and the minerals extracted, such as wolfram which was intensively exploited in the area during the Second World War. These projects could target additional categories of people as tourists which could benefit from the infrastructure locally available. The creation of a specialized hub for tourists with specific needs in the municipality of Almeida could demonstrate new opportunities for local and regional development, including the local community in the process of achieving sustainable development. Keywords: Stone Landscapes, geoparks, rewilding Europe, sustainable development 1. INTRODUCTION Stones have fascinated me since I was a child. How are they born, and how they grow were some of the innocent questions generated in my brain as if stones could have a similar development to that of humans. Geography would later answer many of my questions! Stone landscapes have many different stories to tell. The process of enclosures (bocage) that parcelled the land through the use of stone walls is one of them. They protect the cultivated plots not only from livestock, but also from wind, creating at the same time an attractive and efficient ecological habitat for several species that inhabit particular ecosystems. Some of these walls result from the patient work of people who removed the stones from the fields when these were ploughed and more stones were brought to the surface. Other anthropic actions gave rise to terraces, supported by stone walls that are now protected as UNESCO World Heritage for their scenic value and cultural importance, such as those in the Douro Valley in Portugal. Stones are often an efficient technique to prevent landslides. On the other hand, stone structures such as Stonehenge (United Kingdom), Carnac (France) and Pascoa Island, to mention only some of the best known, can attract hundreds of thousands of tourists in search of something different, majestic, mysterious, historic and spiritual. Stones were a valued material in earlier times. Some 335 000 year old stone artifacts have been identified. Prehistoric stone tool technology evolved independently within local populations. Farkas-Petö et al. (2014) mentions the selection made by the tool making man of the most suitable stones to produce the tools according to the desired function, such as the polished stone tools of the Vatya culture (Pest County, Central Hungary). According to Farkas-Petö et al., (2014), these populations, known for their developed stone industry, probably collected raw-material from nearby their own dwelling places, but it is possible that other more distant sites of collection were visited, and
74 498 190 this practice already existed in 2000 - 1350 BC, as suggested by the presence of stone axes of Ophiolites, since these were not available at Pest County (Central Hungary). In the opinion of Farkas-Petö et al., (2014), these populations collected raw-material from around 2 to 50 km in the case of stones from their own dwelling places and could travel between 100 and 400 km to look for different stones. In certain rural areas seesaw quern stones have been used from Recent Pre-History to the Modern Era. They serve as domestic mills consisting of a fixed quern which is a stone with a concavity, in which the grain was ground using a single roller stone. Technical improvements allowed the creation of the rotary quernstone, formed by two round quernstones with manual propulsion, which was used in the Iron Age and during the period of Romanization when larger mills appeared (Lemos & Cruz, 2011). Cyclopean constructions are also common, mainly in ramparts, and illustrate a building method which used massive monoliths trimmed to form the basis of the walls, as described by González-Ruibal (2004). Stones were widely used to build houses and walls. The marking of the boundaries of properties with low stone walls had often an interesting visual impact on the landscape, looking like lines contouring the hills, as described by Varanda (2005). In spite of their scenic and ecological value, it is dramatic the degradation suffered by many of these walls, especially those made of earth. Some argue that this is due to the loss of know-how boosted by the facility offered nowadays by the use of blocks of ceramic or concrete that are often left exposed or only sprinkled with cement (Varanda, 2005). Other arguments in the literature such as lack of funding, falling farm incomes and skill shortages, are presented as having led to a decline in the condition of dry stone walls, mainly throughout the UK, affecting both their practical and their aesthetic values. It is no wonder that today, in some areas such as Almeida, a municipality in North Portugal (Fig. 1) people often use other materials to repair old stone buildings and there are reports of people selling the stones abroad for decoration. Varanda (2005) emphasizes the disharmony caused in the landscape by these interventions (Fig. 2). In spite of the success in the restoration and reconstruction of small monuments using local techniques, undertaken by higher education professionals, this is not a common choice among the population that prefers the most modern materials and techniques developed during the second half of the 20th century that have dethroned the use of stone. Figure 1. Location of Almeida in Portugal Source: Municipality of Almeida Figure 2. Disharmony caused by the use of blocks of concrete in old stone houses in Cabreira, Almeida, Portugal The Hope project seeks to raise awareness among the local inhabitants of the value of their stone houses and the beautiful paths enclosed by stone walls as a touristic resource and, simultaneously, to make a contribution to a sustainable environment, since these stone structures constitute habitats for species and protection for the fields, that are much prized in the policies of the European Union towards an Horizon 2020. The Hope Project, that benefited from the logistic support of the Socio-Therapeutic Association of Almeida (ASTA) and the financial support of the Municipality of Almeida, organized an exhibition at the Military Museum in Almeida, during the European
75 498 191 Landscape Week, that took place in April 2014, using photos taken by the professional photographer Luisa Ferreira, that portray the stone landscapes in the municipality and sketch ideas for future thematic touristic itineraries (such as a watermills and old Moorish irrigation system routes and stone routes with “alminhas” – religious icons found along the paths in the rural areas). This project, under the designation of “Art and Solidarity in Almeida” is one of the several carried out by NGOs at national level, for a publication coordinated by Nunes (2014), supported by EEA grants and managed by the Gulbenkian Foundation. The participants worked in different contexts and territories but shared principles, values and strategic visions about territorial development. A set of postcards, showing photographs of stone walls, by Luisa Ferreira and myself, was also produced. The sale of these postcards will benefit ASTA, the Socio-Therapeutic Association of Almeida, which hosted the European Landscape Week in April 2014. In October 2015, during the celebration of the 15th anniversary of ASTA, a book will be launched with testimonies of the participants in European Landscape Week, which will portray the region using a phenomenological approach. 2. FUNCTIONALITIES OF STONE WALLS Human History provides several examples of the use of hedgerows for different purposes. These may be made of natural bushes and trees or any material from stone to mud, wood, iron, etc. They may result from a need to protect the fields from livestock (Cañadas) or specific land ownership and control issues (enclosure, bocage), or to provide access to more land, particularly in mountain areas, where the technique of terracing along the contour lines not only prevents landslides but also allows for the ploughing more land in a particularly adverse environment. The walls are often used to protect the soil from wind erosion or salinity transported in the air, in areas close to the ocean. The hedges of natural plants with a specific odor or color are used in agro-ecology since they can prevent some species from attacking the crops by keeping them away (through the odor) or attract useful insects (yellow for instance), such as bees, to increase pollination. The destruction of many hedges and the use of concrete with no gaps in its surface in buildings has been one of the reasons for the imbalance in ecosystems as noted in many studies, namely in the 80’s by Soltner (1988), who presents a didactic comparison in three stages of the depletion of fauna biodiversity occurring along with the simplification of landscape. In the first stage, when a landscape is still a complex mosaic of rivers, bushes and hedges, biodiversity is at its highest level; the destruction of these elements will affect the biodiversity, which will decrease more and more in a landscape where rivers are channelled, trees cut down, natural vegetation removed and soil levelled until no natural landscape element is left (Soltner, 1988). More recently other authors have been expressing the same concerns, referring to the strong impacts on “green infrastructure, biodiversity and landscape aesthetics” caused by the removal of hedgerows and other landscape elements present in historic farming systems (Burel & Baudry, 1995; Baudry et al., 2000; Dramstad et al., 2001; Herzog et al., 2006; Verburg et al., 2013). Verburg et al. (2013) remark that global markets and development of technologies contributed to different human choices that led to changes in human interactions with the environment, which consequently acted adversely on land cover, management and spatial structure. In the 20th century several European countries, including Italy, Spain and Portugal, launched campaigns in order to increase their self-sufficiency in cereals (Pan-Montojo, 2012). In Portugal it was called the “Wheat Campaign” (1929) and the environmental impacts mainly felt in the province of Alentejo (known as the country’s barn) by clearing land (felling of cork trees and other Quercus) are still evident each year in the large amount of sediment washed away (measured at Vale Formoso Station, Mértola). Adverse impacts are still common today since, to facilitate mechanization, namely the use of tractors and other equipments, such as pivot irrigation systems, spontaneous vegetation has been removed and in some areas the potential habitats provided by the traditional stone walls have been replaced by concrete blocks, contributing to the disappearance of some species. Verburg et al., (2013) emphasizes that although some changes such as deforestation can impact drastically on the landscape function, more subtle changes in management and spatial structure, such as removal of landscape elements, can disrupt the normal functioning of landscape and associated services provided to human well-being. According to Gobster et al., (2007) “landscape structure is important for many regulating services such as water retention and purification, pollination and soil protection that support the provision of food, feed and fuel. Also for many cultural services including landscape aesthetics, tourism and the protection of cultural heritage (‘sense of place’) the spatial arrangement of landscape elements and the
76 498 192 mosaic of land cover types play an important role” (Verburg et al., 2013). Day (1993) writes that “making and building things is the stage at which idea meets material. They can either compromise each other or, through their fusion, reach a higher level. Sculpture in the mind is pointless. Without art, stone fresh from the quarry is little more than a pile of broken rock. It is, however, a little more than just a pile because each material already has something in it waiting to find an appropriate place and form. Not every stone has Michelangelo’s David in it, but every stone has a quality of “stoneness”. The violence of the quarry leaves it with sharp split surfaces, but the quality of enduring rock can be refound”. These stone walls are a piece of art, starting with the knowledge needed to build them, mixed with the inspiration of the artist in placing each element one after another (Fig. 3). They represent the art and traditional skills of rural people that can be used as touristic attraction. Figure 3. Stone wall landscape in Cabreira, Almeida Stone walls are elements of a landscape named as stonescapes (Campbell & Dubé, 1999), and constitute one of the 19 different types of landscape elements, such as grass margins, hedgerows and ditches, that are represented in the transect data published by Verburg et al., (2013). Verburg et al., (2013) provide a typology of the landscape at European level using the density of linear landscape elements in agricultural areas and the landscape unit map by Mücher et al., (2010) as a baseline. 3. RESCUING MEMORIES OF THE PAST, PRODUCING SUSTAINABILITY FOR THE FUTURE Dry Stone Walls have stood the test of time! They have been used for structures and enclosures in Europe since 2000 BC, forming a permanent enclosure that is presented by the Leonardo project (see below) as being more robust and cost effective than any other form of field boundary. Many of the walls built in the 18th and 19th centuries still stand today. In England and Wales alone the estimated length of field walls is 105 800 km. According to Bailey et al. (2009) landscape heritage is threatened if dry stone walls are not maintained while there is also a regional deterioration of dry stone walls. The Leonardo project, financed by the European Union for the period between 2012 and 2014, was constituted by associations from four different countries: Great Britain, France, Italy and Spain. The project attempts to rescue these important memories of the past, by promoting traditional wall construction and maintenance skills that are being lost at an alarming rate, in an area which is an important wildlife habitat and of historic significance. It aims to: 1) contribute to the development of a new professional network of dry stone walling craftsmen and training techniques throughout the participating countries; 2) restore patterns of dry stone walls and strengthen the network of hedgerows; 3) enhance the landscape and ecological networks; 4) manage and restore the urban fringe farmland structure including stone walls, hedges and hedgerow trees. The project intends to provide high quality training programs to develop skills in dry stone walling; promote dry stone walling qualifications and career opportunities; subsidise the delivery of training to young farmers working or studying in the rural sector. Moreover it will “create a sustainable training and education hub offering knowledge, expertise and training opportunities to national conservation bodies, employment organisations, heritage groups, and individuals; formulate high quality work based training programmes to develop skills in dry stone walling; promote the transfer of knowledge by experts to the next generation; broaden the knowledge and appeal of dry stone walling as a heritage craft; involve a wide range of people of all ages and backgrounds in dry stone walling training and community projects”, as stated in the site. The Prince’s Countryside Fund supports a training course on dry stone walling for young farmers. In Portugal some communities based on permaculture have promoted the restoration of stone walls, and some offer workshops on how to rebuild and maintain them, such as Quinta do Lúzio, in Sintra. There is much information “hidden” in the way the stone walls are built which risks being lost. In Almeida, during the European Landscape Week, Joaquim Pedroso, a history teacher at the local secondary school told me, that in some walls, the coping (the upper layer of stones on the top) slopes in the direction of the closest village. In a detailed
77 498 193 research project led by Guillot (2014) dedicated to rural heritage it is explained how the ownership of the wall can be revealed: if the coping has two slopes it belongs to two owners. If it has only one slope, it belongs to the person who owns the side to which the rainwater runs. Stone walls play an important role in the preservation of habitats. Indeed habitat loss and degradation are two of the main factors that have contributed to the progressive decline of European plant diversity. Among the causes of the destruction and degradation of natural plant habitats are urban development, overdrawing of groundwater, road building, recreation, forest fires, agriculture and tree logging. “It is estimated that habitat destruction from human activity is the primary cause of risk to 83% of endangered plant species. Habitat loss is harmful not only to a single species, but to whole communities and ecosystems. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), it has been estimated that by the year 2032, more than 70% of the land’s surface will have been destroyed or disturbed. Habitat loss is also a problem because it leads to the fragmentation of the remaining habitat resulting in further isolation of plant populations” (European Commission, 2008). In the framework of the LIFE + Project several measures have been undertaken to promote the creation and maintenance of habitats. The building of traditional stone walls is one of the measures planned as illustrated by the following examples. The Life Saving Buskett Project is the acronym of the LIFE+ Project entitled “Soil stabilization measures to protect Annex I habitats in Buskett Girgenti Natura 2000 site” in Malta. The project aims at protecting habitats of EU importance composed of mature trees at Buskett along the watercourse and the banks of Wiedil-Luq (Poplar Valley). These measures aim at the stabilization of soil in areas supporting the Annex I habitats and include the repair, restoration and rebuilding of retaining dry stone walls and arches defining part of the watercourse and the planting of characteristic tree species. The project will also publish a good practice guide, concerning wall and terrace restoration for landowners and users of these areas. A final example is the Landscape Protected Area of Sintra/Cascais, in the Lisbon area, which is planning the building of stone walls to retain the soil in slopping areas that, in the long term, can build up terraces, and create conditions to slow down the flow of rainwater. The importance of stone walls in Almeida is highlighted by the fact that it is located in the Sites of Rede Natura of Douro International and Malcata, where flora and fauna of communitarian interest are to be found, as stated by Andresen (2009). 4. STONES AND PSYCHOGEOGRAPHY IN CABREIRA Psychogeography is “the study of the specific effects of the geographical environment (…) on the emotions and behaviour of individuals” (Debord, 2008). It emphasizes a personal response to a place and is thus a departure for artistic creation. It is through this perspective that the Hope project tries to value the stone structures scattered around the wild and enchanted territory of Almeida, namely in a small settlement called Cabreira (Goatherd), raising the awareness of the locals of a resource that can stimulate interesting touristic activities, which have the potential to create jobs and eventually bring population back. This territory was highly populated in the past, but today it has a low population density of elderly people and the rural abandonment is evident. The area was described as a: “frontier territory marked by an immense plainness, with a color changing with seasons and oscillating between golden earth tones and grey greens, over which the celestial vastness resides” (Andresen, 2009). Cabreira, a small village of 88 inhabitants (2015), strongly affected by emigration mainly in the sixties, has benefitted from the establishment of the Socio-Therapeutic Association (ASTA). This establishment requires 26 employees to take care of 39 “companions”, persons with special needs, and this represents an important increase in the local population in an area that, 15 years ago had only 25 inhabitants (more recently, due to the economic crisis, some other local people, working in Lisbon or abroad, also came back to Cabreira). The former parish of Cabreira had an intensive agricultural activity in the past, as evidenced by the remaining watermills, norias and aqueducts along the Cabras River, all of them made of stone. Religious icons named “Alminhas” placed along the paths are also a cultural reminder of their religious devotion. This mountain area, dominated by some impressive granite blocks, was an important area for raising livestock particularly goats that give their name to the local river. Today not a single goat remains but the paths protected by stone walls, used by goat herders to conduct their flocks, are a beautiful reminder of that time and constitute a potential for future pedestrian routes. The Hope project has designed two possible routes: “roman bridge” and “noria and aquaduct” (Fig.
78 498 194 4) which conduct the visitor through scenic landscapes along the Cabras river where, in the past, hundreds of land parcels were used to produce horticultural products. An interesting set of norias and old aquaducts, made of stone, are still present, although most of them in ruins and one of the norias was even robbed. Figure 4. Robbed Noria and Aquaduct in Cabreira The initial project suggested to the Mayor of Almeida, during the 2014 Landscape Week event, is intended to create routes accessible for tourists but the huge investment needed, due to the almost inexistent infrastructure is a constraint to such an initiative. The area has the potential to constitute a hub catering for visitors with special needs, taking advantage of the existing infrastructure at ASTA, which could inspire other investors to create more facilities, mainly associated with organic farms and rural tourism. There is a market for this target group of tourists as proven by the success achieved by a local hotel organised as a unit prepared to receive handicapped people near Guimarães, North Portugal, that works with tourists from abroad, mainly from Holland, and organizes holiday activities for them. Furthermore social inclusion is one of the targets of Horizon 2020. 5. A DISCUSSION OF NEW PERCEPTIONS OF TOURISM The potential for tourism is one of the main assets of this region which benefits from its proximity to the Douro Valley (World Heritage listed), Douro International Natural Park and the Special Protected Area of Coa Valley, that contains world famous rock carvings. Almeida is a historic village promoted to visitors for its interesting fortress. Nearby it is located Faia Brava, the first private protected area to be created in Portugal. In 2010, it became a pilot area of the European Initiative Rewilding Europe. Faia Brava covers 214 ha and is classified by Birdlife International as an Important Bird Area which aims at the maintenance of habitats and the preservation of threatened species. Together with the Association of Transhumance and Nature it organizes ecotourism activities. They also practice organic farming and produce olive oil, almonds and preserves (Carvalho, 2014). This kind of infrastructure supports activities such as green tourism, bird watching, pedestrian paths, cycle tourism, photography and organic farming. Almeida and Castelo Mendo are two historic Stone Villages in Portugal. Both have belonged to the Historical Villages Network since 1994 (Carvalho, 2014). This network proposes an integrated strategy of development based on the rehabilitation of historic villages, aiming at added value to their architectural, cultural, natural, economic and social assets. Geoparks have a great potential particularly for regions such as Almeida, where stone features dominate the landscape. The Global Network of National Geoparks (100 members in 30 countries) is one response to those who wonder about the potential of these often rudimentary structures, that can on occasion offer the highest standards of “green tourism” among other services. Portugal has only 4 geoparks. The creation of a geopark in Almeida with a theme suitable for children would be an innovation found nowhere else. For a child (and some adults too!) the vision of some of the monoliths in the mountains may well look like animals (Fig. 5). Figure 5. A monolith wih the look of an elephant in Cabreira The Almeida region offers the perfect context in which to invoke the Flinstone’s village “Bedrock”, which could recreate the stories created in the 60’s (1960-1966 on ABC and frequently repeated worldwide). In South Spain (Ronda Mountain, near Malaga) the Júzcar village was painted blue after Sony selected it for the World Premiere of its new “The Smurfs 3”
79 498 195 movie. This initiative was a huge success, attracting each year hundreds of thousands of national and foreign visitors to a village that has only 400 inhabitants and not many job opportunities. Now its population dress up as “smurfs” and sell souvenirs themed with these cartoon characters. Whilst this brings economic benefits, the peacefulness of the place is disturbed by these crowds, and some will certainly feel annoyed that people do not come only to enjoy the beauty offered by nature. An interpretation centre could provide advice about the risks associated with radon in old houses in granite areas. Elevated radon levels can be found more often in houses with older buildings made up of blocks, stones, muddy walls and having concrete roofs as stated by Rafique et al., (2011). Nagy et al., (2011) describe a passive process used in Hungary – Mecsek Mountains – that may mitigate radon effects by 71%. The area offers considerable potential for interesting initiatives, notably a dry stone wall museum. In Spain, the dry stone wall museum of Vilafranca, Valencia, inaugurated in 2006, is a good example of how to keep alive an ecological architecture that transformed the landscape while respecting the environment and the crafts that are associated with it. Nowadays these skills are becoming fashionable due to a recent growth in interest in vernacular architecture as a means of achieving ZEB, the Nearly Zero-Energy Building concept, which aims to reduce the “grey energy” required to transport materials from their point of origin and use them in construction. According to Moura & Motta (2013), the building industry causes considerable damage to the environment, largely as a result of its high energy consumption (Moura & Motta, 2013). It is one of the activities with a large footprint. It generates 25% of all the solid residues, it uses 25% of the available water and occupies 12% of the land of the planet, it is the sector that extracts most material from the natural environment, 30%, and consumes between 40 and 50% of the total energy used (Formoso et al., 2002). The rising awareness, that the human behaviour has to change if we want to bequeath the coming generations a good quality of life, demands energy efficiency in building. The gated community “Alma Verde” (Green Soul) in Burgau, Algarve, Portugal provides an example of luxury urbanization, with A+ Energy Efficiency, in which some of the walls dividing the gardens were built with stone. Other mineral themed museums with tourist potential in Almeida region include the Museum of Life in Cabreira during the Second World War, which could supply information about the exploitation of wolfram and organize “adventure” visits to the caves from which this material was extracted, thereby rehabilitating these abandoned installations. 6. CONCLUSION Stones were the theme of this applied research project which sought to promote a region (Almeida) in touristic terms, while simultaneously helping an Association working with people with special needs (ASTA). The fact that the postcards of stone features produced as part of the project have been selling well, is an indication that much can be achieved with limited resources and investment. The authors, who offered the rights of the photographs to the Municipality, feel rewarded for having contributed to the promotion of the region, in the hope that other initiatives will enable the area to achieve a dynamic that may contribute to its sustainable development. Cabreira has the natural conditions to become a healing biotope, a sacred place “where you can regularly tune in to the healing energies of Earth” (Simpson, 2000). Entangled in the “stonescapes” there is a spiritual landscape whose aesthetics can inspire visitors and guide landscape managers along the path of sustainable development. As Andersen (2009) remarks in Almeida, a frontier landscape on a land that seems to belong to no one, the fortress is the symbol of the art of knowing to wait for the unknown in a permanently alert state of mind. “Here, landscape, as time, has no age”. Acknowledgements I wish to express my thanks to e-Geo (Centre of Studies of Geography and Regional Planning) and FCT (Foundation for Science and Technology) for the financial support granted, that allowed me to participate in the IGU/CSRS Colloquium in Romania, in August 2014; Luis Fonseca for keeping me updated with the news from Cabreira; and Graham Reed for his valuable and generous help editing this text. REFERENCES Andresen, T., 2009. The Landscape of Almeida. In: Campos, J. (coord.), Almeida – Candidacy of the Bulwarked Fortifications of the Portuguese-Spanish “Raia” (Border-Line) as World Heritage – UNESCO, CM Almeida, Almeida, pp. 171-173. Bailey, A.S., Bertaglia, M., Fraser, I.M., Sharma, A. & Douarin, E., 2009. Integrated pest management portfolios in UK arable farming: results of a farmer survey. Pest Management Science, 65, 9, 1030-1039. Baudry, J., Burel, F., Thenail, C. & Le Cœur, D., 2000. A holistic landscape ecological study of the
80 498 196 interactions between farming activities and ecological patterns in Brittany, France. Landscape and Urban Planning, 50, 1-3, 119-128. Burel, F. & Baudry, J., 1995. Social, aesthetic and ecological aspects of hedgerows in rural landscapes as a framework for greenways. Landscape and Urban Planning, 33, 1-3, 327-340. Campbell, F.C. & Dubé, R.L., 1999. Natural Stonescapes: The Art and Craft of Stone Placement. Storey Publishing, North Adams, 176 p. Carvalho, A., 2014. Historic Villages of Portugal (In Portuguese). Foge comigo, Lisbon, 504 p. Day, C., 1993. Places of the Soul: Architecture and Environmental Design as a Healing Art. The Aquarian Press, London, 192 p. Debord, G., 2008. Introduction to a critique of urban geography. In: Bauder, H. & Engel-Di Mauro, S., Critical Geographies: A Collection of Readings, Praxis (e)Press, Kelowna, pp. 23-27. Dramstad, W.E., Fry, G., Fjellstad, W.J., Skar, B., Helliksen, W., Sollund, M.-L.B., Tveit, M.S., Geelmuyden, A.K. & Framstad, E., 2001. Integrating landscape-based values – Norwegian monitoring of agricultural landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 57, 3-4, 257-268. European Commission, 2008. LIFE and endangered plants – conserving Europe’s threatened flora. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 49 p. Farkas-Petö, A., Horváth, T., Papp, I. & Kovács-Pálffy, P., 2014. Archaeometric Investigation of the Stone Tools of the Vatya Culture (Pest County, Hungary). Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 9, 1, 81-94. Formoso, C., Soibelman, L., De Cesare, C. & Isatto, E., 2002. Material waste in building industry: main causes and prevention. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 128, 4, 316-325. Gobster, P.H., Nassauer, J.I., Daniel, T.C. & Fry, G., 2007. The shared landscape: what does aesthetics have to do with ecology? Landscape Ecology, 22, 7, 959-972. González-Ruibal, A., 2004. Artistic Expression and Material Culture in Celtic Gallaecia. e-Keltoi – Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, 6, 113-166. Guillot, C., 2014. Les murs de clôture. Maisons Paysannes de France, Paris, 80 p. Herzog, F., Steiner, B., Bailey, D., Baudry, J., Billeter, R., Bukacek, R., De Blust, G., De Cock, R., Dirksen, J., Dormann, C.F., De Filippi, R., Frossard, E., Liira, J., Schmidt, T., Stöckli, R., Thenail, C., van Wingerden, W. & Bugter, R., 2006. Assessing the intensity of temperate European agriculture at the landscape scale. European Journal of Agronomy, 24, 2, 165-181. Lemos, F.S. & Cruz, G., 2011. Citânia de Briteiros. The Proto-historic settlement. Sociedade Martins Sarmento, Guimarães, 115 p. Moura, M. & Motta, A.L.T.S., 2013. The energy factor in civil construction (In Portuguese). IX Congresso Nacional de Excelência em Gestão, 1-14. Mücher, C.A., Klijn, J.A., Wascher, D.M. & Schaminée, J.H.J., 2010. A new European Landscape Classification (LANMAP): A transparent, flexible and user-oriented methodology to distinguish landscapes. Ecological Indicators, 10, 1, 87-103. Nagy, É.H., Breitner, D., Horváth, Á. & Szabó, C., 2011. Study of a Passive Radon Mitigation Process and Indoor Radon Concentration’s time dependence after mitigation. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 6, 2, 143-149. Nunes, J., 2014. Participating communities (In Portuguese). Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon, 274 p. Pan-Montojo, J., 2012. Spanish agriculture, 1931-1955: crisis, wars, and new policies in the reshaping of rural society. In: Brassley, P., Segers, Y. & Van Molle, L. (eds.), War, Agriculture, and Food: Rural Europe from the 1930’s to the 1950’s, Routledge, New York, pp. 75-95. Rafique, M., Matiullah, Rahman, S., Rahman, S., Shahzad, M.I., Azam, B., Ahmed, I., Majid, A. & Siddique, M.I., 2011. Assessment of Indoor Radon Doses received by the Dwellers of Balakot – NWFP, Pakistan: a pilot study. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 6, 1, 133-140. Simpson, L., 2000. The Healing Energies of Earth. Journey Editions, London, 160 p. Soltner, D., 1988. L’Arbre et la Haie: pour la production agricole, pour l’équilibre écologique et le cadre de vie rurale. Sciences et Techniques Agricoles, Sainte- Gemmes-sur-Loire, 206 p. Varanda, F., 2005. Rural Walls in the Landscape of Mértola. In: Fernandes, M. & Correia, M (coord.), Arquitectura de terra em Portugal / Earth Architecture in Portugal, Argumentum, Lisbon, pp. 100-103. Verburg, P.H., van Asselen, S., van der Zanden, E.H. & Stehfest, E., 2013. The representation of landscapes in global scale assessments of environmental change. Landscape Ecology, 28, 6, 1067-1080. Received at: 10.03.2015 Revised at: 15.05.2015 Accepted for publication at: 14. 07. 2015 Published online at: 20.07. 2015
81 498 Firmino, A. (2015). CONSUMIDORES E CONSUMO EM TRANSIÇÃO. Valores da Geografia. Atas do X Congresso Da Geografia Portuguesa, 469–474. Link da publicação aqui
82 498 X CONGRESSO DA GEOGRAFIA PORTUGUESA Valores da Geografia Lisboa, 9, 10 e 11 de setembro de 2015 469 Consumidores e Consumo em Transição A. Firmino (a) (a) UNL/FCSH/DGPR, CICS.NOVA, famv@fcsh.unl.pt Resumo A tomada de consciência de que alguns recursos finitos poderão dentro de poucas décadas afectar drasticamente a produção e consumo, sobretudo no mundo ocidental, têm levado ao aparecimento de modelos alternativos, que visam proporcionar aos consumidores produtos de qualidade, com baixa pegada ecológica. O presente estudo, com base nos consumidores dos Cabazes PROVE Bio, no concelho de Loures, demonstra que factores como a segurança alimentar, a par da qualidade organoléptica dos produtos e a interacção com os produtores, são cada vez mais determinantes na escolha dos clientes. Finalmente discutem-se modos de abastecimento resultantes da iniciativa dos consumidores, ainda pouco divulgados entre nós, como a agricultura participativa (ou de contrato) e os impactes que estes poderão ter na paisagem e economia rural e periurbana. Palavras Chave: Consumo alimentar, pegada ecológica, modelos alternativos 1. Introdução O desenvolvimento sustentável não é algo definitivo e imutável. Pelo contrário, por ser dinâmico, desafia-nos constantemente a encontrar soluções que nos permitam adaptar aos novos contextos, procurando equilíbrios a que chamamos resiliência, isto é, a capacidade de adaptação a uma nova situação sem colapsar. A sociedade de consumo de massa, que nos habituámos a considerar o modelo ideal de desenvolvimento na sociedade ocidental, não é sustentável, muito menos se considerada a nível planetário, porque há externalidades que não estão incluídas no preço dos produtos mas que penalizam todos os habitantes da Terra e esta tem recursos finitos. Os consumidores do mundo ocidental representam apenas 10% da população mundial. Chandran Nair (2011) no seu livro sobre o “Grande Consumo”, chama a atenção para o facto de a ideologia do mercado livre dar a ilusão às pessoas do mundo rico de que o seu estilo de vida é o mais adequado e deveria ser seguido pelas economias emergentes. Mas, os cinco ou seis milhões de Asiáticos, que existirão em 2050, não podem viver como um Americano, sob pena de contribuírem rapidamente para o colapso da economia. Nair não é o único a advogar um novo modelo de consumo, como veremos em seguida.
83 498 470 2. Consumo Sustentável O consumo sustentável é hoje um tema recorrente na sociedade ocidental mas, a exemplo do que atrás se afirmou em relação ao desenvolvimento sustentável, a sua definição é imprecisa. Segundo Seyfang (2006, p. 383) consumo sustentável para alguns consiste apenas em erradicar os processos de produção poluentes e apresentar no mercado os chamados produtos “verdes”; para outros implica um repensar dos estilos de vida e do consumo per se. Neste sentido, salientam-se os artigos de David Evans (2011 a, 2011 b), que preconiza um consumo sustentável, como uma prática ética de consumir menos de forma a reduzir os impactes ambientais, e se insere na linha de pensamento de investigadores como Latouche ou McDonald (McDonald et al, 2006) que advogam a simplicidade voluntária. O modelo de abastecimento alimentar ocidental tem sido bastante contestado pelas suas consequências ambientais, sociais, culturais e económicas e tem vindo a ser paulatinamente adaptado às preferências demonstradas por um consumidor mais consciente dos problemas que estão associados aos modelos que têm vindo a ser seguidos. Vivemos, pois, um período de transição, em que se assiste à conversão dum padrão de consumo em que o preço final é o que mais pesa na opção de escolha do comprador, para um modelo mais responsável e consciente, em que externalidades como as distâncias percorridas por um produto (food miles) e a consequente pegada ecológica, o impacte a nível do ambiente e do padrão alimentar e os efeitos nefastos quer na saúde, quer nos interesses dos produtores nacionais, assim como na balança alimentar, entre outros, pesam definitivamente na decisão final do cidadão. Em trabalho publicado recentemente (Firmino, 2014) discute-se o papel importante que a alimentação joga no equilíbrio de forças duma sociedade que aspira a um futuro necessariamente sustentável, se se pretende garantir a sobrevivência e o bem-estar das gerações futuras. Parece-me radicar na mudança de comportamentos a chave para se caminhar em direcção a um verdadeiro desenvolvimento sustentável, mas esta mudança só se alcança após uma tomada de consciência que nos incentive a gerir, duma forma mais sensata, os recursos existentes. No fundo nós, consumidores, temos o poder de influenciar o mercado se exercermos o nosso direito de “consum’actor” isto é, um consumidor que contribui activamente para o futuro sustentável do planeta através das suas escolhas conscientes. Embora este movimento seja ainda pouco perceptível em países como Portugal, adensam-se as redes de consumidores e instituições que, em conjunto, contribuem para a organização de mercados em torno duma produção local e de proximidade (mercados de rua da Agrobio ou os cabazes do programa PROVE, por exemplo) que oferecem produtos de qualidade e permitem em geral o diálogo directo com o produtor, ou apenas com um intermediário, um conceito que nos é apresentado sob a designação de “circuito curto”. Contudo, não estarão de todo protegidos contra movimentos muito poderosos que, através dos governos dos diferentes países, conseguem fazer valer os seus interesses, em perfeito contraciclo com estes movimentos alternativos, e são lesivos dos seus direitos como cidadãos e consumidores.
84 498 471 Insere-se neste absurdo, as alterações da legislação da produção biológica, que não permitindo a utilização de material geneticamente modificado, aceita que a sua produção certificada seja contaminada por OGM’s até 0,9%! Segundo Canotilho (1998, p. 49), o princípio da precaução preconiza que não seja utilizado um produto sobre o qual recaiam dúvidas quanto à sua segurança, mesmo que não exista evidência científica que confirme esses receios. Hoje, sabe-se que muito dificilmente se conseguem mitigar os efeitos de contaminação das culturas vizinhas com material geneticamente modificado, e as medidas que permitem uma co-existência com culturas de OGM’s implicariam um aumento no custo de produção de 41% (Silva, 2003, p. 97); no entanto obriga-se o consumidor a pactuar com esta situação (Firmino, 2009). O próprio parlamento europeu reconhece que somos cobaias do sistema: “one might say that we are guinea pigs in our own development” (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/). Porém, impõem-se restrições em relação a produtos que, embora para os quais não exista ainda na União Europeia autorização para a sua utilização na industria alimentar, são desde há séculos utilizados na alimentação humana sem qualquer registo de danos para a saúde pública, como a stevia, planta originária da América do Sul, com grande poder adoçante, que pode substituir o açucar. Ainda há poucos meses a empresa Andechser, do sul da Alemanha, a primeira a lançar no mercado alemão iogurtes com adoçante à base de stevia, teve de interromper a utilização daquele produto por não haver ainda autorização para o seu uso alimentar na União Europeia. Entretanto, assiste-se a um conjunto de iniciativas por parte de grandes cadeias de supermercados no sentido de contribuírem para um consumo sustentável. Como exemplo, cita-se o partenariado entre a cadeia de supermercados alemã EDEKA (com linha de produção própria de produtos de agricultura biológica) e a WWF (Fundo Mundial para a Vida Selvagem) que desde 2012 colaboram na promoção dos produtos de agricultura biológica, a comercialização de produtos sem OGM’s, nomeadamente a soja, peixe proveniente de pesca sustentável e um conjunto de medidas no sentido de reduzir as emissões de gases com efeito de estufa e diminuir o desperdício (por exemplo nas embalagens) pretendendo agradar com estas iniciativas aos seus cerca de 12 milhões de consumidores (www.edeka.de/wwf). As orientações da União Europeia para o período pós-PAC 2013, por seu lado, preconizam o apoio às comunidades agrícolas que forneçam aos cidadãos europeus alimentos de qualidade, valor nutricional e diversidade, produzidos de forma sustentável, no respeito pelos requisitos estabelecidos em relação ao ambiente, saúde e bem-estar animal e saúde pública (http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/cap-post- 2013/communication/com2010-672_en.pdf) e, no âmbito do Programa Horizon 2020, pretende financiar projectos que visam a segurança alimentar e as cadeias alimentares locais sustentáveis, nomeadamente as que contribuam para a promoção de uma dieta saudável e para o aprovisionamento das cantinas das escolas. O caso de estudo, que em seguida se apresenta, ilustra uma iniciativa no concelho de Loures, que responde a alguns dos objectivos acima referidos.
85 498 472 3. Os Cabazes PROVE Bio em Loures Desde Setembro de 2013 que o consumidor tem à sua disposição, no concelho de Loures, cabazes de produtos biológicos certificados, que se inserem no âmbito do Projecto PROVE (www.prove.com.pt), criado para promover cadeias de circuito curto entre produtores e consumidores; ajudar os agricultores a vender os seus produtos a um preço justo, sem intermediários; criar redes inovadoras de produtos; permitir aos consumidores o contacto directo com os produtores e a aquisição de produtos de qualidade; diversificar as actividades na exploração agrícola (turismo rural e actividades culturais); ajudar na capacidade empresarial dos agricultores; usar meios informáticos para a comercialização dos produtos frescos locais. O estudo de caso dos cabazes Prove Bio, no concelho de Loures, teve lugar entre Julho e Setembro de 2014, tendo sido feitos 32 inquéritos (14 homens e 18 mulheres, num universo de 43 membros activos) e ainda entrevistas a duas dos três agricultores envolvidos no projecto, que partiu da iniciativa da Câmara Municipal de Loures. Os clientes são, em geral, da classe média (4 funcionários públicos do município de Loures, 4 informáticos, 3 empresários e uma dispersão de outras profissões: nutricionista, geógrafa, bióloga…). Predominam os jovens (43% têm menos de 20 anos, 31% estão na classe dos 40 anos, 25% na classe dos 50 anos e, menos de 1% tem mais de 60 anos). De referir que o entrevistado mais velho não é o responsável pela aquisição do cabaz, apenas o vem levantar para a sua filha. O ponto de distribuição dos cabazes (às 5ª feiras entre as 17 e as 20 horas) situa-se em Sacavém, num extremo do concelho, o que não abona em termos de centralidade. Os clientes habitam ou trabalham na proximidade do ponto de distribuição (um reside a 80 kms de distancia). Todos os entrevistados consideram o preço do cabaz razoável (15 Euros para o de 7 a 8 kgs.; 10 Euros para o de 4 a 5 kgs). A maioria compra o cabaz duas vezes por mês, menos de 40% o adquire semanalmente. Os consumidores referem como principais vantagens para a aquisição do cabaz, a relação de proximidade com o produtor, que lhes ensina os nomes dos produtos (alguns deles pouco usuais nos supermercados como a mizuna) e como os preparar. Sobretudo aqueles que têm crianças, demonstram interesse nestes produtos por questões de segurança alimentar (e muitas vezes adquirem-nos apenas para as refeições dos filhos). A qualidade e diversidade dos produtos são também mencionadas (particularmente das ervas aromáticas) e a proximidade das suas casas. A maior vantagem, para muitos, reside no facto de não terem de se preocupar com o que têm de comprar (não precisam de “queimar os neurónios”, como um afirmou) nem perder tempo à procura dos ingredientes no supermercado. Outros factores importantes são a frescura, sabores e aromas e o sentimento de segurança em relação à qualidade.
86 498 473 Em termos de desvantagens são sobretudo referidos a localização num extremo do concelho, o difícil acesso ao ponto de distribuição e a falta de estacionamento na área. Salientam também a dificuldade em coordenar as rotinas da família com as horas e dia da entrega do cabaz e a pouca fruta disponível. As preocupações ambientais e todos os outros argumentos que estamos habituados a ler na teoria da economia de proximidade, aparentemente, não têm grande influência na decisão de aquisição do cabaz por parte destes consumidores, ou pelo menos não são espontaneamente mencionados, merecendo um lacónico “claro que sim” quando instados a pronunciarem-se sobre essas questões. Contudo, o facto de terem aderido a este projecto, só por si, representa já um contributo para o ambiente e para a paisagem, assim como para a sustentabilidade dos pequenos agricultores e a produção de alimentos de qualidade. Os agricultores envolvidos, embora a preparação dos cabazes implique muito trabalho, parecem satisfeitos com os resultados. O rendimento médio, a nível nacional, dos agricultores que vendem os cabazes PROVE, é de cerca de 500 Euros (O Regional, 19.4.2012). Como se dedicam a outras actividades para além dos cabazes PROVE e têm outros pontos de venda, a situação é aceitável. Saliente- se, no entanto, que não é fácil gerir a carteira de clientes do Programa PROVE. Alguns esquecem-se de ir buscar os cabazes, atrasam-se ou suspendem a sua participação temporariamente (por terem produção própria em certos períodos do ano, ou terem mudado de área de residência por questões de trabalho). Contudo, no período de estudo considerado, o número de novas adesões compensou sempre o nº dos que suspenderam ou desistiram da sua participação. Mas, desde o início do projecto, das 135 pessoas que aderiram ao cabaz, 84 desistiram, por vezes pouco tempo volvido. Por quanto tempo será possível manter este equilíbrio? 4. Perspectivas para o Futuro Para além do exemplo aqui apresentado, existem outras formas de organização dos circuitos curtos, como a chamada agricultura participativa (ou de contrato) ainda com pouca expressão em Portugal, mas bastante divulgada, sobretudo em França, sob a designação de AMAP’s, ou associações para a manutenção da agricultura familiar (o equivalente às CSA, Community Supported Agriculture) e em crescente desenvolvimento. Na área de Lisboa, um grupo de cidadãos, em grande parte estrangeiros, criou A Bela Rama (http://abelarama.wordpress.com/) uma iniciativa semelhante às AMAP’s, auto-financiada, em que se pretende partilhar de forma equitativa e participativa entre consumidores e produtores a responsabilidade de abastecimento com produtos agro-ecológicos. Estes consumidores visitam regularmente os produtores e podem eventualmente participar nas tarefas da quinta. O preço dos produtos é decidido em conjunto por ambas as partes. Saliente-se ainda a existência de um Grupo de Permacultura, que se apresenta como um grupo que pretende congregar vontades, divulgar iniciativas, partilhar experiências e conhecimentos e pôr em
87 498 474 prática os ideais da permacultura, resiliência e simplicidade na área de Odivelas/Loures (http://permaculturaportugal.ning.com/group/odivelasloures). Este tipo de iniciativas contribui para a manutenção dos espaços verdes nos hinterlands das cidades, manutenção das paisagens e vivificação da actividade agrícola, apoiando os agricultores e contribuindo para a soberania alimentar. As relações que se estabelecem entre produtor e consumidor configuram uma maior responsabilização de ambas as partes e permitem um maior controle da qualidade dos produtos, sendo um garante da segurança alimentar. 5. Bibliografia Canotilho, J. J.(Coord.) (1998) Introdução ao Direito do Ambiente, Universidade Aberta, Lisboa; Evans, D. (2011, a) Thrifty, green or frugal: Reflections on sustainable consumption in a changing economic climate, Geoforum 42, 550-557; Evans, D. (2011, b) Consuming Conventions: sustainable consumption, ecological citizenship and the worlds of worth, Journal of Rural Studies 27, 109-115; Firmino, A. (2014) Food and Consumption: How a Meal can Change the World, in Editors: Mary Cawley, Ana Maria Bicalho, Lucette Laurens, The Sustainability of Rural Systems: global and local challenges and opportunities, Publisher: Whitaker Institute, NUI Galway and CSRS of the International Geographical Union, Ireland; Firmino, A. (2009 ) GMO´s: genetics maculating organics? In: Frutos, Luisa et al, New Ruralities and Sustainable Use of Territory, Prensas Universitarias de aragoza, Zaragoza; McDonald et al (2006) Towards sustainable consumption: researching voluntary simplifiers. Psychology and Marketing 23, 515-534; Nair, Chandran (2011) Der Grosse Verbrauch, Riemann Verlag, Germany; Seyfang, G. (2006) Ecological Citizenship and Sustainable Consumption: Examining local organic food networks, Journal of Rural Studies 22, p. 383-395. Agradecimento: A autora agradece à Carmem Mouco e à Carla pelo apoio prestado durante a realização dos inquéritos e pelos conhecimentos partilhados, assim como a todas as pessoas inquiridas.
88 498 Firmino, A. (2010). REPRESENTING AND COMMUNICATING RURAL FUTURES THROUGH 3D LANDSCAPE VISUALIZATIONS— EXPERIENCES FROM THE RUFUS PROJECT. Representing and Communicating Rural Futures through 3D Landscape Visualizations – Experiences from the RUFUS Project, 261–268.
89 498 Representing and Communicating Rural Futures through 3D Landscape Visualizations – Experiences from the RUFUS Project Andrew LOVETT, Sonia CARVALHO RIBEIRO, Derek VAN BERKEL, Peter VERBURG and Ana FIRMINO 1 Introduction An important attraction of landscape perspectives is that they provide a more holistic means of addressing environmental management or planning challenges (HAAREN ET AL., 2008). Increasing international interest in such approaches reflects the changing nature of rural areas in many countries, particularly a situation where “agriculture is no longer the backbone of the rural economy” (OECD, 2006). In the countries of the EU this has been associated with changes in agricultural policies, notably a decline in the relative importance of the ‘first pillar’ of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) concerned with direct support to farmers and increasing budgets for the ‘second pillar’ focusing on wider rural development issues (GALLENT ET AL., 2008). The policy shift from agriculture to a more general rural development makes the relationships between the CAP and other sectors more significant. It is widely argued that more coordinated approaches to rural development are needed (i.e. a ‘place-based’ rather than sectoral focus, OECD, 2006). This also emphasises the concept of multifunctional landscapes (in terms of both the mixture of land uses present and the range of goods and services provided), as well as the need for effective mechanisms that assist in coordinating policies and planning for particular territories (SELMAN, 2006; MANDER ET AL., 2007). The RUFUS (Rural Future Networks, http://www.rufus-eu.de/) project is investigating these issues of multifunctionality and policy integration through a series of eleven comparative case studies in six EU countries. These case studies involve the use of interviews and workshops to develop future scenarios for municipalities, explore the potential for multifunctional rural development and to identify current impediments and possible instruments to support progress. Landscape visualization techniques are being used in four of the case studies to assist with the presentation of scenario outcomes in workshops and act as prompts for discussion. Several different visualization techniques are being employed across the case studies (e.g. photomontages, computer-generated still images and real-time models, with variations in levels of realism and use of supporting indicators) to evaluate the merits of different approaches and add to the emerging literature on such comparisons (e.g. SCHROTH AND SCHMID, 2006; MILLER ET AL., 2008; WISSEN ET AL., 2008; SALTER ET AL., 2009). To assist in comparability, guidelines have been developed for the conduct of the case studies and a set of standard questions drawn up to assess the impact of using landscape visualizations.
90 498 A. Lovett, S. Carvalho Ribeiro, D. van Berkel, P. Verburg and A. Firmino 262 2 Material and Methods 2.1 Portuguese case study area An initial case study has been completed in the municipality of Melgaco, northern Portugal. The research focused on the parish of Castro Laboreiro which covers some 9200 hectares, ranging from 400 to 1300 m above sea level. Within the parish there is a steep valley and a higher plateau area to the north. Until recent years, the dominant activity in Castro Laboreiro has been pastoral agriculture with farmers moving to the valley in winter and living on the plateau in summer to take advantage of the open flat pastureland. However, this annual transhumance has now stopped, with permanent housing on the plateau and the valley settlements have been abandoned. In addition there is an aging population and substantial outmigration so that the population of the parish has declined from 1941 residents in 1961 to 995 in 1981 and 722 in 2001. Castro Laboreiro also lies within the boundary of Peneda Geres National Park, which was established in 1971. This has advantages in terms of attracting tourists, especially in the summer, but restrictive planning regulations associated with this designation have strained relationships between the park, local residents and other authorities. There is currently interest in developing new strategies for economic development in the area, but these need to recognise (and ideally reconcile) the contrasting objectives of different parties. Castro Laboreiro therefore presents a microcosm of economic, environmental and social issues that are found in many rural parts of Europe and consequently provided a very appropriate setting for one of the RUFUS case studies. 2.2 Methodological approach A total of 30 formal and informal interviews were conducted with stakeholders in the area during June and July 2009. These interviews provided background information on local issues and helped to identify various potentials for regional development in Castro Laboreiro. Based on the interview responses three separate storylines were developed that illustrated possible development pathways over the next 25-30 years. Thirteen stakeholders subsequently attended a parish workshop on 10th July 2009 where these storylines were introduced and the participants then developed two scenarios of their own. Each of the two sub-groups contained a cross-section of stakeholder interests and as part of the scenario development process they were asked to draw the associated landscape changes on a panoramic photo of Castro Laboreiro and a land use map of the parish. After this exercise each sub-group presented their vision for the future to the other participants. This prompted discussion and debate about the possibilities within the area. The two scenarios were termed ‘Castro Laboreiro: Territorial Sustainability’ (TSU) and ‘New Communalism for the XXI Century’ (NC). TSU relied heavily on policy agencies cooperating with locals for implementation. It included large scale projects like a new improved road, tourist attractions and cultural events. The NC scenario reflected current trends and projected a future with moderate changes to the landscape. These included more woodland cover in the valley and changes in the plateau with some less suitable farmland becoming wild alongside more managed cattle grazing on the better pastures. This scenario also focused more on local partnerships between farmers and entrepreneurs with an
91 498 Representing and Communicating Rural Futures 263 accompanying reduced involvement of central government. Both scenarios included Castro Laboreiro branding and training as part of future developments. Landscape visualizations were created of the baseline situation and the scenarios developed in the first workshop to prompt and support discussion in a second workshop. Two contrasting forms of visualization were used, digital photomontages from valley and plateau viewpoints produced in Photoshop (ADOBE, 2010) and overview 3D models of the entire parish and surrounding area in ArcScene (ESRI, 2010). Figure 1 shows the three photomontages looking west across the plateau. Landscape changes in the NC scenario were reinforced by depicting grazing of cows and sheep in plateau areas, horseback riding in valley areas, marked trails, hiking and tourist attractions like traditional buildings. In the TSU scenario the photomontage shows a mosaic landscape in the valley with small plot agriculture. On the plateau there is an open landscape with grazing. The activities also include tourism with hikers enjoying the landscape, but in comparison to NC there is more emphasis on agricultural production and an expansion of urban settlement (reflecting increased population due to diversification of activities). Fig. 1: Photomontages looking across the plateau, a) current situation, b) New Com- munalism scenario, c) Territorial Sustainability scenario
92 498 A. Lovett, S. Carvalho Ribeiro, D. van Berkel, P. Verburg and A. Firmino 264 Fig. 2: Screen shot of the ArcScene model of Castro Laboreiro A 3D model of the study area was initially developed in ArcScene by overlaying a 30 m digital elevation model derived from ASTER GDEM data (NASA, 2010) with a Landsat 7 pan-sharpened image (dated 24/6/2000) obtained from GLOVIS (USGS, 2010). Land use maps developed by the stakeholders in the first workshop were digitised and then converted to raster grids for draping over the satellite image. It was deliberately decided to present the land use categories as simple colour shadings as a contrast to the detail in the photomontages. In addition, a key purpose of the ArcScene models was to provide a overview of the projected changes across the entire parish with an element of interactivity that include both the ability to select viewpoints and sliders where the user could fade from one land use map to another. It was anticipated that this later capability would help to make the land use changes more explicit. Figure 2 below shows a screenshot of how ArcScene was set up to display the different scenarios and depicts the current land use. Figure 3 illustrates how the land use was expected to change under the two scenarios. The landscape visualizations were employed in a second workshop on 8th September 2009 attended by 12 stakeholders. In this workshop the two scenarios were initially described on a verbal basis and then the visualizations were introduced to prompt further discussion and to help clarify that the drivers and desired outcomes of the scenarios had been correctly understood by the research team. During the event, participants had the opportunity to examine the visualizations during coffee/lunch breaks. They were also asked to complete short questionnaires regarding their opinions on the different ways of representing the scenarios, first after the verbal description and then after examining the visualizations.
93 498 Representing and Communicating Rural Futures 265 Fig. 3: New Communalism and Territorial Sustainability scenarios in ArcScene 3 Results Table 1 below summarises results to several questions where the workshop participants were asked respond on a five point scale (1-not at all; 2-not well; 3-unsure; 4-quite well; 5- very well). The average ratings are all between 3 and 4, with no consistent increase for the two visualization methods compared to the initial verbal presentation. There is a suggestion that the photomontages were better in helping people imagine the changes, while the wider perspective provided by the ArcScene models was beneficial in understanding the underlying drivers. In addition, responses to the question ‘Did seeing the visualizations help you understand the storylines?’ were overwhelmingly in the affirmative. Tab. 1: Summary of questionnaire survey results Verbal Description Photomontage ArcScene Model Question NC Scenario TSU Scenario NC Scenario TSU Scenario NC Scenario TSU Scenario How well can you imagine the appearance of the changes (that are being visualized)? 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.3 3.0 3.1 How well do you understand the reasons for the change? 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.2 3.7 3.7 Did seeing the visualizations help you understand the storylines? – 10 ‘yes’ out of 10 responses 7 ‘yes’ out of 9 responses
94 498 A. Lovett, S. Carvalho Ribeiro, D. van Berkel, P. Verburg and A. Firmino 266 Fig. 3: Responses to the question ‘How well can you imagine the appearance of the changes that are being visualized?’ The averages in Table 1 do, however, conceal some variations in ratings between respondents. Figure 4 combines the results for the two scenarios on a question regarding ‘ability to imagine the changes’ and shows the number of respondents in each rating category for the three presentation methods. From the frequency distributions it is apparent that the number of responses in the ‘3-unsure’ category decreased for the two visualization methods, but with increases in both higher and lower ratings. As a generalisation, there was a tendency for younger and/or more technically inclined participants to favour the visualization methods, whilst elderly ones had more reservations. When asked ‘What type of visualization helped you to understand the scenarios most?’ six participants favoured the ArcScene model, three the photomontages and three said ‘both’. The complementary nature of the two approaches to landscape visualization was also apparent in answers to other questions when participants were asked to describe ways in which the visualizations helped them understand the storylines or were confusing. Quotes regarding the photomontages included ‘It contextualised the ideas in one picture’; while a more negative comment was that they ‘Did not show all the aspects’. Some respondents liked the ArcScene model because ‘It was quick to understand the patterns of land use that each scenario introduces’, while for others ‘It is confusing because it had many colours’. One of the stakeholders who regarded both types of visualization as equally useful explained this in the following terms. ‘Both, they should be used together. 3D [ArcScene] gives an idea of land use pattern and photomontage allows us to see the activities’.
95 498 Representing and Communicating Rural Futures 267 A final question asked the participants ‘As a whole do you think that these visualisation are a helpful way of presenting rural futures? Why?’ There were no negative responses to this question with answers including the following. ‘Yes, I can now understand the two storylines better’. ‘Yes, makes us discuss about the same things’. ‘Yes, because we can better understand the different possibilities for rural development’. 4 Conclusions and Future Work The results of this initial RUFUS case study clear indicate that landscape visualizations can play a useful role in discussions about rural futures. This includes both illustrating different scenarios and helping to make the concept of multifunctional landscapes more explicit. The findings also suggest that audience members may vary in their reactions, that different types of visualizations may perform complementary functions and that a focus simply on high levels of photorealism or interactivity may not be especially beneficial. Future case studies in the project will include the use of other visualisation tools such as Visual Nature Studio (3D NATURE, 2010) and Google Earth/SketchUp (GOOGLE, 2010a, 20010b) with the intention of providing a comparative assessment of a range of techniques for supporting rural development and planning activities. 5 Acknowledgements RUFUS is funded under Theme 8: Socio Economic Sciences and Humanities of the European Commission 7th Framework Programme (Contract No. 21781). The assistance of Kasia Posen, Katy Appleton, Trudie Dockerty and Gilla Sünnenberg with aspects of the research described in this paper is also much appreciated. References 3D Nature (2010): What is Visual Nature Studio? http://3dnature.com/vnsinfo.html, accessed February 2010. ADOBE (2010): Adobe Photoshop family. http://www.adobe.com/products/photoshop/ family/, accessed February 2010. ESRI (2010): Overview of ArcGIS 3D Analyst. http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/ extensions/3danalyst/index.html, accessed February 2010. Gallent, N., Juntti, M., Kidd, S. & D. Shaw (2008): Introduction to Rural Planning. London, UK: Routledge. Google (2010a): Google Earth. http://earth.google.co.uk/, accessed February 2010. Google (2010b): Google SketchUp. http://sketchup.google.com/, accessed February 2010.
96 498 A. Lovett, S. Carvalho Ribeiro, D. van Berkel, P. Verburg and A. Firmino 268 Mander, U., Helming, K. & H. Wiggering (Eds.) (2007): Multifunctional Land Use: Meeting Future Demands for Landscape Goods and Services. Berlin, Germany: Springer. Miller, D., Morrice, J., Coleby, A. & P. Messager (2008): Visualization techniques to support planning of renewable energy developments. In Lovett, A. & K. Appleton (Eds.): GIS for Environmental Decision-Making. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, 227-239. NASA (2010): ASTER global digital elevation map announcement. http://asterweb.jpl.nasa. gov/gdem.asp, accessed February 2010. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2006): The New Rural Paradigm: Policies and Governance. Paris, France. OECD Publications. Salter, J. D., Campbell, C., Journeay, M. & S. R. J. Sheppard (2009): The digital workshop: exploring the use on interactive and immersive visualisation tools in participatory planning. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, 2090-2101. Schroth, O. & W. A. Schmid (2006): How much interactivity does the public want? An assessment of interactive features in virtual landscapes. In Buhmann, E., Ervin, S. Jørgensen, I. & J. Strobl (Eds.): Trends in Knowledge-Based Landscape Modeling. Heidelberg, Germany: Wichmann, 116-127. Selman, P. (2006): Planning at the Landscape Scale. London, UK: Routledge. USGS (2010): USGS global visualization viewer. http://glovis.usgs.gov/, accessed February 2010. Von Haaren, C., Galler, C. & S. Ott (2008): Landscape Planning: The Basis of Sustainable Landscape Development. Leipzig, Germany: Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. Von Haaren, C. & B. Warren-Kretzschmar (2006): The interactive landscape plan: Use and benefits of new technologies in landscape planning and discussion of the interactive landscape plan in Koenigslutter am Elm, Germany. Landscape Research, 31, 83-105. Wissen, U., Schroth, O., Lange, E. & W. A. Schmid (2008): Approaches to integrating indicators into 3D landscape visualisations and their benefits for participative planning situations. Journal of Environmental Management, 89, 184-196.
97 498 Firmino, A. (2004). A CASA ECOLÓGICA: INOVAÇÃO E DESENVOLVIMENTO SUSTENTÁVEL. Revista GeoInova DGPR/UNL, 10, 101–113.
  ­€€ ‚ƒ ­€­­­€ „            Arquitectura Ecológica, Cidades Sustentáveis, Agenda 21, De- senvolvimento Sustentável. ­€­ ‚ ­ ‚­ ­ ­
        ­   € €‚            ­€‚ƒ„ †‡ˆ„‰      ­€‚ƒ„ †‰ ƒ Š‹
 ­€ ‚ƒ ƒ „‚ † ‡ˆ‰Š „‹ „‚ ŒŒŒŽ Ž ‘ „ ’ „‹ „‚ “ ” • – ’ – — ˜ ™­“­€ š „‚ „ „‚’ ›’ œ  „ „‚ ’ „‚ „‹ ž „‚ ’ ‚ ’ ™ˆ›  Ÿ š¡ˆ‰‰™’ ž ’ „‚ ’ „‚— ‚‘ ž ’ ƒ ¢ ’ „‹¢ „‚„‚ „‹