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Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Chapter 3: Processes
3.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Chapter 3: Processes
Process Concept
Process Scheduling
Operations on Processes
Interprocess Communication
Examples of IPC Systems
Communication in Client-Server Systems
3.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Objectives
To introduce the notion of a process -- a program in
execution, which forms the basis of all computation
To describe the various features of processes, including
scheduling, creation and termination, and communication
To explore interprocess communication using shared memory
and message passing
To describe communication in client-server systems
3.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Concept
An operating system executes a variety of programs:
Batch system – jobs
Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion
Multiple parts
The program code, also called text section
Current activity including program counter, processor
registers
Stack containing temporary data
 Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
Data section containing global variables
Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time
3.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Concept (Cont.)
Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable file),
process is active
Program becomes process when executable file loaded into
memory
Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks, command
line entry of its name, etc
One program can be several processes
Consider multiple users executing the same program
3.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process in Memory
3.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process State
As a process executes, it changes state
new: The process is being created
running: Instructions are being executed
waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
terminated: The process has finished execution
3.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Diagram of Process State
3.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process
(also called task control block)
Process state – running, waiting, etc
Program counter – location of instruction to next execute
CPU registers – contents of all process-centric registers They include
accumulators, index registers, stack pointers, and general-purpose registers,
plus any condition-code information
CPU scheduling information- priorities, scheduling queue pointers
Memory-management information – memory allocated to the process
Accounting information – CPU used, clock time elapsed since start, time limits
I/O status information – I/O devices allocated to process, list of open files
3.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
CPU Switch From Process to Process
3.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Threads
So far, process has a single thread of execution
Consider having multiple program counters per process
Multiple locations can execute at once
 Multiple threads of control -> threads
Must then have storage for thread details, multiple program
counters in PCB
See next chapter
3.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Representation in Linux
Represented by the C structure task_struct
pid t_pid; /* process identifier */
long state; /* state of the process */
unsigned int time_slice /* scheduling information */
struct task_struct *parent; /* this process’s parent */
struct list_head children; /* this process’s children */
struct files_struct *files; /* list of open files */
struct mm_struct *mm; /* address space of this process */
3.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Scheduling
Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for time
sharing
Process scheduler selects among available processes for
next execution on CPU
Maintains scheduling queues of processes
Job queue – set of all processes in the system
Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main
memory, ready and waiting to execute
Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O
device
Processes migrate among the various queues
3.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues
3.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Representation of Process Scheduling
Queueing diagram represents queues, resources, flows
3.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Schedulers
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process
should be executed next and allocates CPU
Sometimes the only scheduler in a system
Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds) ⇒ (must be
fast)
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes
should be brought into the ready queue
Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes) ⇒ (may
be slow)
The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
Processes can be described as either:
I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations,
many short CPU bursts
CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few
very long CPU bursts
Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix
3.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiple
programming needs to decrease
Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back in
from disk to continue execution: swapping
3.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Multitasking in Mobile Systems
Some mobile systems (e.g., early version of iOS) allow only one
process to run, others suspended
Due to screen real estate, user interface limits iOS provides for a
Single foreground process- controlled via user interface
Multiple background processes– in memory, running, but not
on the display, and with limits
Limits include single, short task, receiving notification of events,
specific long-running tasks like audio playback
Android runs foreground and background, with fewer limits
Background process uses a service to perform tasks
Service can keep running even if background process is
suspended
Service has no user interface, small memory use
3.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Context Switch
When CPU switches to another process, the system must save
the state of the old process and load the saved state for the
new process via a context switch
Context of a process represented in the PCB
Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful
work while switching
The more complex the OS and the PCB  the longer the
context switch
Time dependent on hardware support
Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU
 multiple contexts loaded at once
3.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Operations on Processes
System must provide mechanisms for:
process creation,
process termination,
and so on as detailed next
3.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Creation
Parent process create children processes, which, in turn
create other processes, forming a tree of processes
Generally, process identified and managed via a process
identifier (pid)
Resource sharing options
Parent and children share all resources
Children share subset of parent’s resources
Parent and child share no resources
Execution options
Parent and children execute concurrently
Parent waits until children terminate
3.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
A Tree of Processes in Linux
init
pid = 1
sshd
pid = 3028
login
pid = 8415
kthreadd
pid = 2
sshd
pid = 3610
pdflush
pid = 200
khelper
pid = 6
tcsch
pid = 4005
emacs
pid = 9204
bash
pid = 8416
ps
pid = 9298
3.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Creation (Cont.)
Address space
Child duplicate of parent
Child has a program loaded into it
UNIX examples
fork() system call creates new process
exec() system call used after a fork() to replace the
process’ memory space with a new program
3.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
C Program Forking Separate Process
3.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Creating a Separate Process via Windows API
3.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Termination
Process executes last statement and then asks the operating
system to delete it using the exit() system call.
Returns status data from child to parent (via wait())
Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
Parent may terminate the execution of children processes using
the abort() system call. Some reasons for doing so:
Child has exceeded allocated resources
Task assigned to child is no longer required
The parent is exiting and the operating systems does not
allow a child to continue if its parent terminates
3.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Process Termination
Some operating systems do not allow child to exists if its parent has
terminated. If a process terminates, then all its children must also
be terminated.
cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are
terminated.
The termination is initiated by the operating system.
The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by
using the wait()system call. The call returns status information
and the pid of the terminated process
pid = wait(&status);
If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a zombie
If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an orphan
3.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Multiprocess Architecture – Chrome Browser
Many web browsers ran as single process (some still do)
If one web site causes trouble, entire browser can hang or crash
Google Chrome Browser is multiprocess with 3 different types of
processes:
Browser process manages user interface, disk and network I/O
Renderer process renders web pages, deals with HTML,
Javascript. A new renderer created for each website opened
 Runs in sandbox restricting disk and network I/O, minimizing
effect of security exploits
Plug-in process for each type of plug-in
3.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Interprocess Communication
Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes,
including sharing data
Reasons for cooperating processes:
Information sharing
Computation speedup
Modularity
Convenience
Cooperating processes need interprocess communication
(IPC)
Two models of IPC
Shared memory
Message passing
3.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Communications Models
(a) Message passing. (b) shared memory.
3.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Cooperating Processes
Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution
of another process
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of
another process
Advantages of process cooperation
Information sharing
Computation speed-up
Modularity
Convenience
3.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Producer-Consumer Problem
Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process
produces information that is consumed by a consumer
process
unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size
of the buffer
bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer
size
3.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution
Shared data
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
. . .
} item;
item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;
Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements
3.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Bounded-Buffer – Producer
item next_produced;
while (true) {
/* produce an item in next produced */
while (((in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE) == out)
; /* do nothing */
buffer[in] = next_produced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
}
3.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Bounded Buffer – Consumer
item next_consumed;
while (true) {
while (in == out)
; /* do nothing */
next_consumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
/* consume the item in next consumed */
}
3.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Interprocess Communication – Shared Memory
An area of memory shared among the processes that wish to communicate
The communication is under the control of the users processes not the
operating system.
Major issues is to provide mechanism that will allow the user processes to
synchronize their actions when they access shared memory.
Synchronization is discussed in great details in Chapter 5.
3.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Interprocess Communication – Message Passing
Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions
Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to
shared variables
IPC facility provides two operations:
send(message)
receive(message)
The message size is either fixed or variable
3.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Message Passing (Cont.)
If processes P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:
Establish a communication link between them
Exchange messages via send/receive
Implementation issues:
How are links established?
Can a link be associated with more than two processes?
How many links can there be between every pair of
communicating processes?
What is the capacity of a link?
Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed or
variable?
Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?
3.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Message Passing (Cont.)
Implementation of communication link
Physical:
 Shared memory
 Hardware bus
 Network
Logical:
 Direct or indirect
 Synchronous or asynchronous
 Automatic or explicit buffering
3.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Direct Communication
Processes must name each other explicitly:
send (P, message) – send a message to process P
receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
Properties of communication link
Links are established automatically
A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating
processes
Between each pair there exists exactly one link
The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional
3.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Indirect Communication
Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred
to as ports)
Each mailbox has a unique id
Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox
Properties of communication link
Link established only if processes share a common mailbox
A link may be associated with many processes
Each pair of processes may share several communication links
Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional
3.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Indirect Communication
Operations
create a new mailbox (port)
send and receive messages through mailbox
destroy a mailbox
Primitives are defined as:
send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A
3.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Indirect Communication
Mailbox sharing
P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
Who gets the message?
Solutions
Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes
Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive
operation
Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver.
Sender is notified who the receiver was.
3.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Synchronization
Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking
Blocking is considered synchronous
Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is
received
Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message
is available
Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and
continue
Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives:
A valid message, or
Null message
Different combinations possible
If both send and receive are blocking, we have a
rendezvous
3.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Synchronization (Cont.)
Producer-consumer becomes trivial
message next_produced;
while (true) {
/* produce an item in next produced */
send(next_produced);
}
message next_consumed;
while (true) {
receive(next_consumed);
/* consume the item in next consumed */
}
3.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Buffering
Queue of messages attached to the link.
implemented in one of three ways
1. Zero capacity – no messages are queued on a link.
Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous)
2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages
Sender must wait if link full
3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length
Sender never waits
3.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Examples of IPC Systems - POSIX
POSIX Shared Memory
Process first creates shared memory segment
shm_fd = shm_open(name, O CREAT | O RDWR, 0666);
Also used to open an existing segment to share it
Set the size of the object
ftruncate(shm fd, 4096);
Now the process could write to the shared memory
sprintf(shared memory, "Writing to shared
memory");
3.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
IPC POSIX Producer
3.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
IPC POSIX Consumer
3.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Examples of IPC Systems - Mach
Mach communication is message based
Even system calls are messages
Each task gets two mailboxes at creation- Kernel and Notify
Only three system calls needed for message transfer
msg_send(), msg_receive(), msg_rpc()
Mailboxes needed for commuication, created via
port_allocate()
Send and receive are flexible, for example four options if mailbox full:
 Wait indefinitely
 Wait at most n milliseconds
 Return immediately
 Temporarily cache a message
3.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Examples of IPC Systems – Windows
Message-passing centric via advanced local procedure call (LPC) facility
Only works between processes on the same system
Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain communication channels
Communication works as follows:
 The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s connection port object.
 The client sends a connection request.
 The server creates two private communication ports and returns the
handle to one of them to the client.
 The client and server use the corresponding port handle to send messages or
callbacks and to listen for replies.
3.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Local Procedure Calls in Windows
3.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Communications in Client-Server Systems
Sockets
Remote Procedure Calls
Pipes
Remote Method Invocation (Java)
3.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Sockets
A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication
Concatenation of IP address and port – a number included at
start of message packet to differentiate network services on a
host
The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to port 1625 on host
161.25.19.8
Communication consists between a pair of sockets
All ports below 1024 are well known, used for standard
services
Special IP address 127.0.0.1 (loopback) to refer to system on
which process is running
3.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Socket Communication
3.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Sockets in Java
Three types of sockets
Connection-oriented
(TCP)
Connectionless
(UDP)
MulticastSocket
class– data can be sent
to multiple recipients
Consider this “Date” server:
3.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Remote Procedure Calls
Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls
between processes on networked systems
Again uses ports for service differentiation
Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the
server
The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the
parameters
The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the
marshalled parameters, and performs the procedure on the
server
On Windows, stub code compile from specification written in
Microsoft Interface Definition Language (MIDL)
3.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Remote Procedure Calls (Cont.)
Data representation handled via External Data
Representation (XDL) format to account for different
architectures
Big-endian and little-endian
Remote communication has more failure scenarios than local
Messages can be delivered exactly once rather than at
most once
OS typically provides a rendezvous (or matchmaker) service
to connect client and server
3.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Execution of RPC
3.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Pipes
Acts as a conduit allowing two processes to communicate
Issues:
Is communication unidirectional or bidirectional?
In the case of two-way communication, is it half or full-
duplex?
Must there exist a relationship (i.e., parent-child)
between the communicating processes?
Can the pipes be used over a network?
Ordinary pipes – cannot be accessed from outside the process
that created it. Typically, a parent process creates a pipe and
uses it to communicate with a child process that it created.
Named pipes – can be accessed without a parent-child
relationship.
3.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Ordinary Pipes
Ordinary Pipes allow communication in standard producer-consumer
style
Producer writes to one end (the write-end of the pipe)
Consumer reads from the other end (the read-end of the pipe)
Ordinary pipes are therefore unidirectional
Require parent-child relationship between communicating processes
Windows calls these anonymous pipes
See Unix and Windows code samples in textbook
3.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
Named Pipes
Named Pipes are more powerful than ordinary pipes
Communication is bidirectional
No parent-child relationship is necessary between the
communicating processes
Several processes can use the named pipe for communication
Provided on both UNIX and Windows systems
Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th
Edition
End of Chapter 3

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Chapter 3: Processes

  • 1. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Chapter 3: Processes
  • 2. 3.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Chapter 3: Processes Process Concept Process Scheduling Operations on Processes Interprocess Communication Examples of IPC Systems Communication in Client-Server Systems
  • 3. 3.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Objectives To introduce the notion of a process -- a program in execution, which forms the basis of all computation To describe the various features of processes, including scheduling, creation and termination, and communication To explore interprocess communication using shared memory and message passing To describe communication in client-server systems
  • 4. 3.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Concept An operating system executes a variety of programs: Batch system – jobs Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion Multiple parts The program code, also called text section Current activity including program counter, processor registers Stack containing temporary data  Function parameters, return addresses, local variables Data section containing global variables Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time
  • 5. 3.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Concept (Cont.) Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable file), process is active Program becomes process when executable file loaded into memory Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks, command line entry of its name, etc One program can be several processes Consider multiple users executing the same program
  • 6. 3.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process in Memory
  • 7. 3.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process State As a process executes, it changes state new: The process is being created running: Instructions are being executed waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor terminated: The process has finished execution
  • 8. 3.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Diagram of Process State
  • 9. 3.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Control Block (PCB) Information associated with each process (also called task control block) Process state – running, waiting, etc Program counter – location of instruction to next execute CPU registers – contents of all process-centric registers They include accumulators, index registers, stack pointers, and general-purpose registers, plus any condition-code information CPU scheduling information- priorities, scheduling queue pointers Memory-management information – memory allocated to the process Accounting information – CPU used, clock time elapsed since start, time limits I/O status information – I/O devices allocated to process, list of open files
  • 10. 3.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition CPU Switch From Process to Process
  • 11. 3.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Threads So far, process has a single thread of execution Consider having multiple program counters per process Multiple locations can execute at once  Multiple threads of control -> threads Must then have storage for thread details, multiple program counters in PCB See next chapter
  • 12. 3.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Representation in Linux Represented by the C structure task_struct pid t_pid; /* process identifier */ long state; /* state of the process */ unsigned int time_slice /* scheduling information */ struct task_struct *parent; /* this process’s parent */ struct list_head children; /* this process’s children */ struct files_struct *files; /* list of open files */ struct mm_struct *mm; /* address space of this process */
  • 13. 3.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Scheduling Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for time sharing Process scheduler selects among available processes for next execution on CPU Maintains scheduling queues of processes Job queue – set of all processes in the system Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device Processes migrate among the various queues
  • 14. 3.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues
  • 15. 3.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Representation of Process Scheduling Queueing diagram represents queues, resources, flows
  • 16. 3.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Schedulers Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed next and allocates CPU Sometimes the only scheduler in a system Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds) ⇒ (must be fast) Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought into the ready queue Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes) ⇒ (may be slow) The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming Processes can be described as either: I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix
  • 17. 3.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Addition of Medium Term Scheduling Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiple programming needs to decrease Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back in from disk to continue execution: swapping
  • 18. 3.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Multitasking in Mobile Systems Some mobile systems (e.g., early version of iOS) allow only one process to run, others suspended Due to screen real estate, user interface limits iOS provides for a Single foreground process- controlled via user interface Multiple background processes– in memory, running, but not on the display, and with limits Limits include single, short task, receiving notification of events, specific long-running tasks like audio playback Android runs foreground and background, with fewer limits Background process uses a service to perform tasks Service can keep running even if background process is suspended Service has no user interface, small memory use
  • 19. 3.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Context Switch When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old process and load the saved state for the new process via a context switch Context of a process represented in the PCB Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching The more complex the OS and the PCB  the longer the context switch Time dependent on hardware support Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU  multiple contexts loaded at once
  • 20. 3.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Operations on Processes System must provide mechanisms for: process creation, process termination, and so on as detailed next
  • 21. 3.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Creation Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid) Resource sharing options Parent and children share all resources Children share subset of parent’s resources Parent and child share no resources Execution options Parent and children execute concurrently Parent waits until children terminate
  • 22. 3.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition A Tree of Processes in Linux init pid = 1 sshd pid = 3028 login pid = 8415 kthreadd pid = 2 sshd pid = 3610 pdflush pid = 200 khelper pid = 6 tcsch pid = 4005 emacs pid = 9204 bash pid = 8416 ps pid = 9298
  • 23. 3.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Creation (Cont.) Address space Child duplicate of parent Child has a program loaded into it UNIX examples fork() system call creates new process exec() system call used after a fork() to replace the process’ memory space with a new program
  • 24. 3.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition C Program Forking Separate Process
  • 25. 3.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Creating a Separate Process via Windows API
  • 26. 3.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Termination Process executes last statement and then asks the operating system to delete it using the exit() system call. Returns status data from child to parent (via wait()) Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system Parent may terminate the execution of children processes using the abort() system call. Some reasons for doing so: Child has exceeded allocated resources Task assigned to child is no longer required The parent is exiting and the operating systems does not allow a child to continue if its parent terminates
  • 27. 3.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Process Termination Some operating systems do not allow child to exists if its parent has terminated. If a process terminates, then all its children must also be terminated. cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are terminated. The termination is initiated by the operating system. The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by using the wait()system call. The call returns status information and the pid of the terminated process pid = wait(&status); If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a zombie If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an orphan
  • 28. 3.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Multiprocess Architecture – Chrome Browser Many web browsers ran as single process (some still do) If one web site causes trouble, entire browser can hang or crash Google Chrome Browser is multiprocess with 3 different types of processes: Browser process manages user interface, disk and network I/O Renderer process renders web pages, deals with HTML, Javascript. A new renderer created for each website opened  Runs in sandbox restricting disk and network I/O, minimizing effect of security exploits Plug-in process for each type of plug-in
  • 29. 3.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Interprocess Communication Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes, including sharing data Reasons for cooperating processes: Information sharing Computation speedup Modularity Convenience Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC) Two models of IPC Shared memory Message passing
  • 30. 3.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Communications Models (a) Message passing. (b) shared memory.
  • 31. 3.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Cooperating Processes Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process Advantages of process cooperation Information sharing Computation speed-up Modularity Convenience
  • 32. 3.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Producer-Consumer Problem Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size
  • 33. 3.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution Shared data #define BUFFER_SIZE 10 typedef struct { . . . } item; item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE]; int in = 0; int out = 0; Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements
  • 34. 3.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Bounded-Buffer – Producer item next_produced; while (true) { /* produce an item in next produced */ while (((in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE) == out) ; /* do nothing */ buffer[in] = next_produced; in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE; }
  • 35. 3.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Bounded Buffer – Consumer item next_consumed; while (true) { while (in == out) ; /* do nothing */ next_consumed = buffer[out]; out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE; /* consume the item in next consumed */ }
  • 36. 3.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Interprocess Communication – Shared Memory An area of memory shared among the processes that wish to communicate The communication is under the control of the users processes not the operating system. Major issues is to provide mechanism that will allow the user processes to synchronize their actions when they access shared memory. Synchronization is discussed in great details in Chapter 5.
  • 37. 3.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Interprocess Communication – Message Passing Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables IPC facility provides two operations: send(message) receive(message) The message size is either fixed or variable
  • 38. 3.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Message Passing (Cont.) If processes P and Q wish to communicate, they need to: Establish a communication link between them Exchange messages via send/receive Implementation issues: How are links established? Can a link be associated with more than two processes? How many links can there be between every pair of communicating processes? What is the capacity of a link? Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed or variable? Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?
  • 39. 3.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Message Passing (Cont.) Implementation of communication link Physical:  Shared memory  Hardware bus  Network Logical:  Direct or indirect  Synchronous or asynchronous  Automatic or explicit buffering
  • 40. 3.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Direct Communication Processes must name each other explicitly: send (P, message) – send a message to process P receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q Properties of communication link Links are established automatically A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes Between each pair there exists exactly one link The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional
  • 41. 3.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Indirect Communication Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports) Each mailbox has a unique id Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox Properties of communication link Link established only if processes share a common mailbox A link may be associated with many processes Each pair of processes may share several communication links Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional
  • 42. 3.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Indirect Communication Operations create a new mailbox (port) send and receive messages through mailbox destroy a mailbox Primitives are defined as: send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A
  • 43. 3.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Indirect Communication Mailbox sharing P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive Who gets the message? Solutions Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was.
  • 44. 3.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Synchronization Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking Blocking is considered synchronous Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is received Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message is available Non-blocking is considered asynchronous Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and continue Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives: A valid message, or Null message Different combinations possible If both send and receive are blocking, we have a rendezvous
  • 45. 3.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Synchronization (Cont.) Producer-consumer becomes trivial message next_produced; while (true) { /* produce an item in next produced */ send(next_produced); } message next_consumed; while (true) { receive(next_consumed); /* consume the item in next consumed */ }
  • 46. 3.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Buffering Queue of messages attached to the link. implemented in one of three ways 1. Zero capacity – no messages are queued on a link. Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous) 2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages Sender must wait if link full 3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length Sender never waits
  • 47. 3.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Examples of IPC Systems - POSIX POSIX Shared Memory Process first creates shared memory segment shm_fd = shm_open(name, O CREAT | O RDWR, 0666); Also used to open an existing segment to share it Set the size of the object ftruncate(shm fd, 4096); Now the process could write to the shared memory sprintf(shared memory, "Writing to shared memory");
  • 48. 3.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition IPC POSIX Producer
  • 49. 3.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition IPC POSIX Consumer
  • 50. 3.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Examples of IPC Systems - Mach Mach communication is message based Even system calls are messages Each task gets two mailboxes at creation- Kernel and Notify Only three system calls needed for message transfer msg_send(), msg_receive(), msg_rpc() Mailboxes needed for commuication, created via port_allocate() Send and receive are flexible, for example four options if mailbox full:  Wait indefinitely  Wait at most n milliseconds  Return immediately  Temporarily cache a message
  • 51. 3.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Examples of IPC Systems – Windows Message-passing centric via advanced local procedure call (LPC) facility Only works between processes on the same system Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain communication channels Communication works as follows:  The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s connection port object.  The client sends a connection request.  The server creates two private communication ports and returns the handle to one of them to the client.  The client and server use the corresponding port handle to send messages or callbacks and to listen for replies.
  • 52. 3.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Local Procedure Calls in Windows
  • 53. 3.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Communications in Client-Server Systems Sockets Remote Procedure Calls Pipes Remote Method Invocation (Java)
  • 54. 3.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Sockets A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication Concatenation of IP address and port – a number included at start of message packet to differentiate network services on a host The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to port 1625 on host 161.25.19.8 Communication consists between a pair of sockets All ports below 1024 are well known, used for standard services Special IP address 127.0.0.1 (loopback) to refer to system on which process is running
  • 55. 3.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Socket Communication
  • 56. 3.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Sockets in Java Three types of sockets Connection-oriented (TCP) Connectionless (UDP) MulticastSocket class– data can be sent to multiple recipients Consider this “Date” server:
  • 57. 3.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Remote Procedure Calls Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between processes on networked systems Again uses ports for service differentiation Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the parameters The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the marshalled parameters, and performs the procedure on the server On Windows, stub code compile from specification written in Microsoft Interface Definition Language (MIDL)
  • 58. 3.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Remote Procedure Calls (Cont.) Data representation handled via External Data Representation (XDL) format to account for different architectures Big-endian and little-endian Remote communication has more failure scenarios than local Messages can be delivered exactly once rather than at most once OS typically provides a rendezvous (or matchmaker) service to connect client and server
  • 59. 3.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Execution of RPC
  • 60. 3.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Pipes Acts as a conduit allowing two processes to communicate Issues: Is communication unidirectional or bidirectional? In the case of two-way communication, is it half or full- duplex? Must there exist a relationship (i.e., parent-child) between the communicating processes? Can the pipes be used over a network? Ordinary pipes – cannot be accessed from outside the process that created it. Typically, a parent process creates a pipe and uses it to communicate with a child process that it created. Named pipes – can be accessed without a parent-child relationship.
  • 61. 3.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Ordinary Pipes Ordinary Pipes allow communication in standard producer-consumer style Producer writes to one end (the write-end of the pipe) Consumer reads from the other end (the read-end of the pipe) Ordinary pipes are therefore unidirectional Require parent-child relationship between communicating processes Windows calls these anonymous pipes See Unix and Windows code samples in textbook
  • 62. 3.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Named Pipes Named Pipes are more powerful than ordinary pipes Communication is bidirectional No parent-child relationship is necessary between the communicating processes Several processes can use the named pipe for communication Provided on both UNIX and Windows systems
  • 63. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition End of Chapter 3