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INSTRUMENTATION.ppt
- 1. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Instrumentation
- 2. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Instrumentation
Chapter Seven
Instructions: Circle the choice that indicates your opinion.
1. Teachers’ unions should be abolished.
Strongly Strongly
agree Agree Undecided Disagree disagree
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
2. School administrators should be required by law to teach at least one class in a
public school classroom every year.
Strongly Strongly
agree Agree Undecided Disagree disagree
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
3. Classroom teachers should be able to choose the administrators in their schools.
Strongly Strongly
agree Agree Undecided Disagree disagree
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
- 3. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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What are Data?
Data refers to the information researchers obtain
on the subjects of their research.
Demographic information or scores from a test
are examples of data collected.
The researcher has to determine what kind of
data they need to collect.
The device the researcher uses to collect data is
called an instrument.
- 4. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Key Questions
The instruments and procedures used in collecting data is
called instrumentation.
Questions arise regarding the procedures and conditions under
which the instruments will be administered:
Where will the data be collected?
When will the data be collected?
How often are the data to be collected?
Who is to collect the data?
The most highly regarded types of instruments can provide
useless data if administered incorrectly, by someone disliked
by respondents, under noisy, inhospitable conditions, or when
subjects are exhausted.
- 5. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Validity, Reliability, and Objectivity
Validity is an important consideration in the choice of an
instrument to be used in a research investigation
It should measure what it is supposed to measure
Researchers want instruments that will allow them to make
warranted conclusions about the characteristics of the subjects
they study
Reliability is another important consideration, since
researchers want consistent results from instrumentation
Consistency gives researchers confidence that the results
actually represent the achievement of the individuals involved
Objectivity refers to the absence of subjective judgments
This should be eliminated with regards to achievement of the
subjects, even if its difficult to do so
- 6. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Usability
An important consideration for any researcher in choosing or
designing an instrument is how easy the instrument will actually be
to use.
Some of the questions asked which assess usability are:
How long will it take to administer?
Are the directions clear?
How easy is it to score?
Do equivalent forms exist?
Have any problems been reported by others who used it?
Getting satisfactory answers can save a researcher a lot of time
and energy.
- 7. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Ways to Classify Instruments
Who Provides the Information?
Themselves: Self-report data
Directly or indirectly: from the subjects of the
study
From informants (people who are knowledgeable
about the subjects and provide this information)
- 8. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Types of Researcher-completed
Instruments
Rating scales
Interview schedules
Tally sheets
Flowcharts
Performance
checklists
Anecdotal records
Time-and-motion logs
Observation forms
- 9. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Excerpt from a Behavior Rating Scale for Teachers
(Figure 7.4)
Instructions: For each of the behaviors listed
below, circle the appropriate number, using
the following key: 5 = Excellent, 4 = Above
Average, 3 = Average, 2 = Below Average,
1 = Poor.
A. Explains course material clearly.
1 2 3 4 5
B. Establishes rapport with students.
1 2 3 4 5
C. Asks high-level questions.
1 2 3 4 5
D. Varies class activities.
1 2 3 4 5
- 10. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Excerpt from a Graphic Rating Scale
(Figure 7.5)
Instructions: Indicate the quality of the student’s participation
in the following class activities by placing an X anywhere along
each line.
Always Frequently Occasionally Seldom Never
1. Listens to teacher’s instructions.
Always Frequently Occasionally Seldom Never
2. Listens to the opinions of other students.
Always Frequently Occasionally Seldom Never
3. Offers own opinions in class discussions.
- 11. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Sample Observation Form
(Figure 7.8)
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Discussion Analysis Tally Sheet (Figure 7.9)
- 13. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Performance Checklist Noting Student Actions (Figure 7.11)
- 14. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Types of Subject-completed
Instruments
Questionnaires
Self-checklists
Attitude scales
Personality
inventories
Achievement/aptitude
tests
Performance tests
Projective devices
Sociometric devices
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Example of a Self-Checklist (Figure 7.13)
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Example of Items from a Likert Scale
(Figure 7.14)
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Example of the Semantic Differential
(Figure 7.15)
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Pictorial Attitude Scale for Use with
Young Children (Figure 7.16)
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Sample Items from a Personality
Inventory (Figure 7.17)
- 20. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Sample Items from an Achievement Test
(Figure 7.18)
- 21. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Sample Item from an Aptitude Test
(Figure 7.19)
- 22. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Sample Items from an Intelligence Test
(Figure 7.20)
- 23. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Item Formats
Questions used in a subject-completed
instrument can take many forms but are
classified as either selection or supply
items.
Examples of selection items are:
True-false items
Matching items
Multiple choice items
Interpretive exercises
- 24. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Unobtrusive Measures
Many instruments require the cooperation of the respondent in one
way or another.
An intrusion into an ongoing activity could be involved which causes
a form of negativity within the respondent.
To eliminate this, researchers use unobtrusive measures, data
collection procedure that involve no intrusion into the naturally
occurring course of events.
In most cases, no instrument is used, however, good record keeping
is necessary.
They are valuable as supplements to the use of interviews and
questionnaires, often providing a useful way to corroborate what
more traditional data sources reveal.
- 25. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Types of Scores
Quantitative data is reported in the form of scores
Scores are reported as either raw or derived
scores
Raw score is the initial score obtained
Taken by itself, a raw score is difficult to interpret, since it has little
meaning
Derived score are scores that have been taken from raw scores
and standardized
They enable researchers to say how well the individual performed
compared to others taking the same test
Examples include:
Age and Grade-level Equivalents
Percentile Ranks
Standard scores are mathematically derived scores having
comparable meaning on different instruments
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Examples of Raw Scores and
Percentile Ranks (Table 7.1)
95 1 25 100
93 1 24 96
88 2 23 92
85 3 21 84
79 1 18 72
75 4 17 68
70 6 13 52
65 2 7 28
62 1 5 20
58 1 4 16
54 2 3 12
50 1 1 4
N = 25
Raw Cumulative Percentile
Score Frequency Frequency Rank
- 27. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Norm-Referenced vs. Criterion-
Referenced Instruments
All derived scores give meaning to individual scores by
comparing them to the scores of a group.
The group used to determine derived scores is called the
norm group and the instruments that provide such
scores are referred to as norm-referenced instruments.
An alternative to the use of achievement or performance
instruments is to use a criterion-referenced test.
This is based on a specific goal or target (criterion) for
each learner to achieve.
The difference between the two tests is that the criterion
referenced tests focus more directly on instruction.
- 28. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Measurement Scales
There are four types of measurement scales
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
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Four Types of Measurement Scales
(Figure 7.25)
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Four Types of Measurement Scales
(Table 7.2)
Measurement
Scale Characteristics
Nominal Groups and labels data only;
reports frequencies or percentages.
Ordinal Ranks data; uses numbers only to
indicate ranking.
Interval Assumes that equal differences between
scores really mean equal differences in
the variable used.
Ratio All of the above, plus true zero point.
- 31. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Nominal Scales
Considered the simplest form of
measurement.
Researchers assign numbers to
different categories.
An example would be to assign a
“1” to men, a “2” to women.
The advantage to assigning
numbers to the categories is to
facilitate computer analysis.
Involves groups and labels data
only.
- 32. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Ordinal Scales
Involves the use of numbers to rank or order scores
from high to low.
An example would be the ranking of high to low scores
on an examination.
Differences in rankings would not necessarily be the
same with certain scores.
Ordinal scales indicate relative standing among
individuals.
- 33. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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An Ordinal Scale: The Winner of a
Horse Race (Figure 7.27)
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Interval Scales
Involves the use of numbers to represent equal
intervals in different segments on a continuum.
Very similar to an ordinal scale with the
exception of the equal intervals of points.
Assumes that equal differences between scores
really mean equal differences in the variable
measured.
- 35. © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Ratio Scales
A ratio scale involves the use of numbers to
represent equal distances from a known “zero
point”.
A scale designed to measure height would be
a ratio scale since the zero point represents
the absence of height.
Ratio scales are almost never encountered in
Educational Research.