SAGAR SAVALE 1
Carbohydrates and there Metabolites
Presented by
Sagar Kishor Savale
(Department of Pharmaceutics, North Maharashtra University, college of R.C.Patel Institute of
Pharmaceutical Education and
Research, Shirpur, 425405, Dist.Dhule, Maharashtra.)
avengersagar16@gmail.com (7038397890)
1. Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound comprising only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
usually with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other word, with the
empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m could be different from n).Some exceptions exist;
for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula
C5H10O4.Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate
to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in
biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The carbohydrates (saccharides) are
divided into four chemical groupings: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller
(lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. The word
saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar."

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2. Classification of monosaccharides
The α and β anomers of glucose. Note the position of the hydroxyl group (red or green) on
the anomeric carbon relative to the CH2OH group bound to carbon 5: they are either on
the opposite sides (α), or the same side (β). Monosaccharides are classified according to
three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon
atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the
monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a
ketose. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are
called tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on. These two systems of
classification are often combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon
aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a
six-carbon ketone).
Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form. Use in living organisms
Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an
energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When
monosaccharides are not immediately needed by many cells they are often converted to
more space-efficient forms, often polysaccharides. In many animals, including humans, this
storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch, is used for
the same purpose.

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2.1 Disaccharides
Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two
monosaccharides: D-glucose (left) and D-fructose (right).Two joined monosaccharides are
called a disaccharide . Examples include sucrose and lactose.
2.2 Polysaccharides
It can hydrolised produced number of unit of monosaccharide
E.g. starch, pectin, mucilage, gums,
Storage Polysaccharides Energy storage - starch and glycogen Structural Polysaccharides
Used to provide protective walls or lubricative coating to cells - cellulose and
mucopolysaccharides.
2.2.1 Starch
Energy storage used by plants Long repeating chain of α-D-glucose Chains up to 4000 units
Amylose straight chain Amylopectine branched structure major part of starch Great for
making gravy, jam and jelly.
Amylose starch
Straight chain that forms coils: α (1 4) linkage.
2.2.1.1 Amylose starch
Example showing coiled structure - 12 glucose units - hydrogens and side chains are
omitted.
2.2.1.2 Amylopectin starch

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Amylopectin differs from amylose only in that it has side chains. These are formed from α
(1 6) links
Side chains occur every 24-30 units.
Starch is stored as starch grains. They cannot diffuse from the cell and have little effect on
the osmotic pressure of the cell.
2.2.1.3 Test for starch.
Iodine reacts with starch to form a blue complex. Iodine (I2 ) + Starch; Blue complex While
this can be used to test for starch, it is more commonly used to test for iodine (iodometric
titrations)
3. Carbohydrate contain in drug
3.1 Isapgol
3.2 Linseed
3.3 Honey
3.4 Acacia
3.5 Agar
3.6 Sterculia
3.7 Tragacanth
3.8 Cellulose
3.9 Pectin
3.10 Guar gum
3.11 Sodium alginate
3.12 Inulin
3.13 Starch
3.14 Chitin
3.1 isapgol
 Synonyms - isapghula,plantago seed
 Biologicale source- it consists dried seed of plant known as plantago ovata belonging
to family plantaginaceae.
 Geographical source- gujarat,punjab and rajasthan
 Chemical composition- main chemical constituent is musilage,other protein, it can
hydrolysed prodused pentoses sugar.
 Chemical test- swelling index , ruthenium red.

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 Use- laxative , emollient , dysentary , demulsant.
3.2 Starch
 Synonyms- amylum
 Biological source- starch is a polysaccharide is obtained form the grains of
maize(zea mays) , rice(oryza sativa) , wheat(triticum aestivum) , belonging to family
gramineae or form the tubers of potato(solanum tuberosum) belonging to family
solanaceae.
 Geographicale source- topicale as well as sub topicale countries.
 Collection-
 Maize starch (corn starch)
Maize grains are washed thoroughly with water to remove the adhered organic
matter after which they are soften by keeping in warm water for 2to3 days.
Sufficient sulphur dioxide is passed to the medium to prevent fermentation. The
swollen kernel are passed through attrition mill to break the grains so as to separate
the endosperm and outermost coating of the grain. At this point, special atteantion
is to separate the germ. This is affected by addition of water where in germs float

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and are seprated the germ. The water which is used to soften the grains dissolves
most of the minerals soluble proteins and carbohydrates from the grains. The water
being rich in all these contents is use as a culture medium for the production of
antibiotics like penicillin. The separate germs are used to prepare the germ oil by
germ oil by expression method and is known as corn oil the oil contains fatty acids
like inoleic and linolenic acids and vitamins E. it is used commercially, for the
preparation of soap the starch y
Material contains gluten most of this is removed by simpile sieving and then by
washing. Starch being heavier settles at the bottom and is followed by gluten.
Several treatment with cold water wash the starch effectively which is then
centrifugal or filter-pressed and finally dried in flash dryers on moving belt dryer.
 WHEAT STARCH
Wheat being the major article of food is restrictedly used for preparation of starch .
in this process the wheat flour is converted into and kept for a while the gluten in
the dough swells and the masses are taken to grooved rollers wherein water is
poured over then with constant shaking the starchy liquid coming out of the rollers
is processed conveniently to take out the starch which is then dried and packed
suitably.
 Chemical composition- it can consists two different polysaccharide amylose &
amylopectin.amylose is used has nutrition supplement , amylopectin is used has
viscosity modifires
Amylopectin

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Amylose
 Chemical test- iodine test –starch sample can treated with iodine can produced
violet colour on boiling colour can decolourise on cooling recolourise the violet
Colour , boil 1gm of starch with 15ml water and cool frome jelly like mass
 Use- Pharmaceutical industries, suspending agent, emulsifying agent, disintegrating
agent, binding agent, dusting powder.
3.3 Cellulose
 Cellulose is an organic compound a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of
several hundred to over ten thousand β (1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an
important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many
forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form
biofilms. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose
content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50% and that of dried hemp is
approximately 45%.
 Sources for cellulose
Cellulose is found in plants as micro fibrils [(2-20 nm diameter and 100 - 40 000 nm
long). These form the structurally strong framework in the cell walls. Cellulose is
mostly prepared from wood pulp. Cellulose is also produced in a highly hydrated
form by some bacteria (for example, Acetobacter xylinum).
 Structural unit
Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-(14)-D-galactopyranose units in C1
conformation.
The fully equatorial conformation of β-linked glucopyranose residues stabilizes the
chair structure, minimizing its flexibility (for example, relative to the slightly more
flexible α-linked glucopyranose residues in amylose). Cellulose preparations may
contain trace amounts (~0.3%) of arabinoxylans.

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Basic properties
 Cellulose is a polysaccharide.
 Cellulose is a obtain for plant and microorganism.
 It is main constituent of photosynthesis reaction.
 Hydrolysis is not possible
 Cotton-90%
 Jute-65%
 Wool-39%
 Silk-38%
Cellulose derivative
 Regenerated cellulose
 Cellulose nitrate
 Cellulose ether
 Cellulose acetate
Regenerated cellulose
 Cellulose + NAOH formation of mass.
 Treated with sodium sulfide +sulfuric acid

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 Provide strength form reyon.
 Use-text tile industries.
Cellulose nitrate
 Cellulose + nitric acid presence of su lfuric acid form cellulose nitrate.
Use- gun powder
Cellulose ether
Two types-
1] methyl cellulose-
Cellulose + alkali cellulose alkali + methyl chloride [under
pressure] methyl cellulose
2] Ethyl cellulose-
Cellulose + alkali cellulose alkali +ethyl cellulose[under
pressure] ethyl cellulose
Use- manufacturing of tablet & capsule shell
Cellulose acetate
Cellulose + acetic acid, acetic anhydride primary acetate
+H2O Cellulose acetate
 Use-text tile industries.
3.4 Acacia

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 Synonyms- Indian gum
 Biological source- Indian gum is the dried gummy exudation obtain from the
stem and braches of plant acacia Arabica belonging to family leguminosae.
 Geo graphical source- india,sri lanka,sudan,africa.
 Chemical constituents- it consist principally arabin which complex mixture of
calcium,magnesium,potassium salt of arabic acid it can hydrolysis gives pentose's
sugar.
 Chemical test –lead substanses gelatinise in aqueous solution of indian gum ,
ruthenium red.
 Use- suspending agent , emulsifying , binding agent ,
3.5 Sodium alginate
 Synonyms- alginate, aliginic acid
 Biologicale source-it obtained for extraction of algae microcitis pyrifera ,aminaria
digitata belonging to family phephysiaseaceae
 Geographicale source-U.S.A. , india, austelia
Collection-it can seprated by osan and collect treated with alkali [alginic acid +
sodium carbonate] from sodium alginate but they are impure treated with calcium

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chloride can form calcium alginate but it is unstable itcan treated with hydrochloric
acid can from alginic acid treated with sodium sait of alginic acid can from purified
sodium alginate.
 Chemical constituents- it is main Chemical constituents is alginic acid,salt sodium
alginate, it can hydrolysis prodused pentoses sugar
 chemical test- ruthenium test, in presence of concentrated hydrochloric acid can
frm gelatinous precipitate.
 Use- rich source of carbohydrate , thicking agent , suspending agent , emulsifying
agent , binding agent
3.6 Chitin
 Synonyms- chitin , chitasone
 Biologicale source-it is polysaccharides containing amino and acetyl group ,it can
present in skeleton muscles of invertebras ,it is found in molluska,anilida arthopoda
 Collection-the shell are pulverized to fine powder and treated with 5%hydrochloric
acid for 24houres to remove calcium and all other impurities .proteins of shell are
removed by treating prottolytic enzyme like pepsin & tripsin .it can acidified with
hydrogen peroxide for 5 to6 houres at ambident temperature ,it can undergoes
deacetlation is done by 120*c with two parts of potassium hydroxide one part is
ethyl alcohol and another is ethylene glycol.it can tested with acetyl content when
acetyl cotent is minimum reaction is stopped . the deacetylated product is chitin.
 Chemical constituents-2-acetoamylo,2-deoxy cellulose
 Chemical test-1] chitosan treated with iodine solution and 10%suphuric acid violet
colour is from.
2] Chitin treated with nitric acid from crystal.
 Use-it is used in wound healing prepration, sizing agent for synthetic fibers.

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3.7 Agar
 Synonyms-vegetable gelatin
 Bilogicale source-it is red agai is obtained form geledium amansil belonging to
family gelediace
 Geographical source- jpan, India, USA.
 Collection-agar is a red algia is mainly collected by deep ocenes of jpan,bamboos
are spred in ocean .the collection is done by may and octomber.sea weedes are
scrapped from bamboos,dried and shaken.it can remove forein organc matter to
boiled for 5 to 6 hours with larg quantity of tdilute acidified water ,on cooling jelly is
produced.
 Chemical constituuents-it can contain two chemical constituents agarose and
agaropectin in agarose can provide strength of jelly like materials and agaropectin
can provide viscosity modifires presence of metoxy group
 Chemical test-1]ruthenium red shows pink colour
2] Boil 1.5 gm of agar with 100ml water cool the solution at room temperature forms
stiff jelly like mass
 Use-to provide strength of jelly like materials, viscosity modifies, emulsifying agent,
bulk laxative, nutrients agar media.
3.8 Inulin
 Synonyms- dahlia
 Bilogicale source –it is polysaccharide form bulb of dahlia is obtain form saussurea
lappa ,cicchorium inybus,belonging to family compositae
 Geographical source- USA., India

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 Chemical constituents -It is polysaccharide is consists of 30 to 50 units of fructo-
furanose uit terminated with ona glucose molecule
 Chemical test-It can treated with NAOH and ferric chloride shows yellow colour.
 Use-It is used in diagonastic agents, prepration of culture media, and manufacture
of fructose.
3.9 Gum karaya
 Synonyms- indian tragacanth
 Bilogicale source –It is dried gummy exudate is obtained frome trees of sterculia
urenes, strculia tragantha, sterculia vilosa, belonging to family sterculiase.
 Chemical constituents -it can contain 8.0%acetyl group and 37%uronic acid ,it can
hydrolysis produced galactouronic acid, arabinose,xylose
 Chemical test-it can treated with NAOH and ferric chloride shows yellow colour
Ruthenium red-pink color.
 Use-bulk laxative, pharmaceutical emulsifiers, thinner,& stabilizer. Adhesive in
dental treatment.
3.10 Honey
 Synonyms- Madhu,sweet solution
 Bilogicale source –It is sweet supersaturated sugar is deposited in honey comb by
honey bees apis melifera,apis dorsata,belonging to family apidae
 Geographicale source-india & all countries

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 Chemical constituents -It can contain 35%glucose,45%mulsifying agent,
fructose,and 2%sucrose
 Chemical test-benidict test, felling test, tollance test, inert sugar-resorcinol in
hydrochloric acid.
 Use-Suspending agent e mulsifying agent,binding agent,sweetning agent
3.11 Guar gum
 Synonyms- Guar gum
 Bilogicale source –It is apowder endosperm of plant is obtain from cyamopsis
tetragonolubus belonging to family leguminosae.
 Chemical constituents -It can consit of two chemical constituents water soluble and
water in soluble , water soluble are 85% guron ; guron undergoes hydrolysis
produces 65%galactose and 35% mannose
 Chemical test .-1]rhuthenium red –no pink colour
2]2%lead acetate-precipitate
 Use-Suspending agent e mulsifying agent,binding agent,stabilising agent Bulk
laxative
3.12 Tragacanth
 Synonyms- Tragacanth
 Bilogicale source –it is the dried gummy exudation is obtain from the stem and
braches of plant astragalus belonging to family leguminosae.
 Chemical constituents -It can consist two chemical constituents traganthin and
bassorine traganthin can contain methoxy group is used has viscosity modifirs

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 Chemical test .--1]rhuthenium red – pink colour
2] Tragacanth can boil add few dropes of ferric chloride –deep yellow colour
precipitate
 Use-Suspending agent emulsifying agent, binding agent, stabilizing agent, Bulk
laxative.
3.13 Pectin
 Synonyms- Pectin
 Bilogicale source –It is a polysaccharide present in inner ring of citrous fruit,
citreous Lemons, citrous aurontium, belonging to family rutaceace.
 Geographical source-India, USA, all over countries.
 Chemical constituents -It can hydrolised can produced galactouronic acid,
arabinose, xylose and methoxy group.
 Chemical test.--In cold water can produced – lumpes, in hot water – jelly like mass.
 Use-Suspending agent e mulsifying agent,binding agent,stabilising agent
Bulk laxative.
3.14 Linseed
 Synonyms- Linseed oil, linseed fibers,
 Bilogicale source –1] fibers-it is a fiber obtained from the stems of plant
usitatissimum linum belonging to family linaceace.
2] oil-it is an oil obtained from the stems of plant usitatissimum linum belonging to
family linaceace.
 Chemical constituents - w-3-fatty acid, carbohydrate, protein, fat.

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 Use-
1. Reductions of cholesterol level.
2. Antioxidant
3. Prevention of breast cancer in women
4. Tex- tile industries before the used of cotton.
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