1. Music
Video
Style
These
features
have
enabled
music
videos
to
have
an
easily
identified
style.
Use
of
camera,
editing,
narrative,
mise-­‐en-­‐scene,
representations
etc.
all
contribute
to
this.
Camera
As
with
any
moving
image
text,
how
the
camera
is
used
and
how
images
are
sequenced
will
have
a
significant
impact
upon
meaning.
Camera
movement,
angle
and
shot
distance
all
need
to
be
analysed.
Camera
movement
may
accompany
movement
of
performers
(walking,
dancing,
etc)
but
it
may
also
be
used
to
create
a
more
dynamic
feel
to
stage
performance,
by
for
instance
constantly
circling
the
band
as
they
perform
on
stage.
The
close
up
does
predominate,
as
in
most
TV,
partly
because
of
the
size
of
the
screen
and
partly
because
of
the
desire
to
create
a
sense
of
intimacy
for
the
viewer.
It
also
emphasises
half
of
the
commodity
on
sale
(not
just
the
song,
but
the
artist,
and
particularly
the
voice).
John
Stewart
of
Oil
Factory
told
me
that
he
sees
the
music
video
as
essentially
having
the
aesthetics
of
the
TV
commercial,
with
lots
of
close
ups
and
lighting
being
used
most
prominently
for
the
star’s
face.
Editing
Though
the
most
common
form
of
editing
associated
with
the
music
promo
is
fast
cut
montage,
rendering
many
of
the
images
impossible
to
grasp
on
first
viewing
thus
ensuring
multiple
viewing,
there
are
videos
which
use
slow
pace
and
gentler
transitions
to
establish
mood.
This
is
particularly
apparent
for
the
work
of
many
female
solo
artists
with
a
broad
audience
appeal,
such
as
Dido.
Often
enhancing
the
editing
are
digital
effects
which
play
with
the
original
images
to
offer
different
kinds
of
pleasure
for
the
audience.
This
might
take
the
form
of
split
screens,
colourisation
and
of
course
blockbuster
film
style
CGI.
Narrative
and
Performance
Narrative
in
songs
is
rarely
complete,
more
often
fragmentary,
as
in
poetry.
The
same
is
true
of
music
promos,
which
more
often
suggest
storylines
or
offer
complex
fragments
of
them
in
non-­‐linear
order.
In
doing
this
the
music
video
leaves
the
viewer
with
the
desire
to
see
it
again
if
only
to
catch
the
bits
missed
on
first
viewing.
As
Steve
Archer
puts
it:
“Often,
music
videos
will
cut
between
a
narrative
and
a
performance
of
the
song
by
the
band.
Additionally,
a
carefully
choreographed
dance
might
be
a
part
of
the
artist’s
performance
or
an
extra
aspect
of
the
video
designed
to
aid
visualisation
and
the
‘repeatability’
factor.
Sometimes,
the
artist
(especially
the
singer)
will
be
a
part
of
the
story,
acting
as
narrator
and
participant
at
the
same
time.
But
it
is
the
lip-­‐synch
close-­‐up
and
the
miming
of
playing
instruments
that
remains
at
the
heart
of
music
videos,
as
if
to
assure
us
that
the
band
really
can
kick
it.”
(Steve
Archer
2004)
The
video
allows
the
audience
access
to
the
performer
in
a
much
greater
range
of
ways
than
a
stage
performance
could.
Eye
contact
and
facial
gestures
via
the
close
up,
role
playing
through
the
narrative
and
mise-­‐en-­‐scene
will
present
the
artist
in
a
number
of
ways
which
would
not
be
possible
in
a
live
concert.

2. The
mise-­‐en-­‐scene
may
be
used
as
a
guarantee
of
what
Simon
Frith
terms
‘authenticity’
as
in
the
stage
performance/use
of
a
rehearsal
room
by
a
band
whose
musical
virtuosity
is
their
main
selling
point.
It
can
be
important
to
a
narrative-­‐based
video
to
establish
setting
and
relationship
to
existing
film
or
televisual
genres.
Equally
it
may
be
used
as
part
of
the
voyeuristic
context
by
suggesting
a
setting
associated
with
sexual
allure,
such
as
a
sleazy
nightclub
or
boudoir.
Or
finally,
as
John
Stewart
suggests,
it
may
be
used
to
emphasise
an
aspirational
lifestyle
for
the
audience,
as
in
the
current
dominance
of
a
futuristic
look
with
emphasis
on
the
latest
gadgetry.
Other
commentators
have
divided
music
videos
in
terms
of
style,
though
often
there
will
be
crossover
between
these;
apart
from
Performance
and
Narrative,
it
is
possible
to
identify
at
least
six:
Gothic,
Animated,
Dreamscapes,
Portraiture,
Futuristic
and
Home
Movie.
Star
Image
As
Richard
Dyer
has
noted:
“
a
star
is
an
image
constructed
from
a
range
of
materials”
(Richard
Dyer
1979).
For
pop
music
these
materials
include
the
songs
(their
lyrical
themes
and
musical
structures/genres),
the
record
covers
(singles
and
albums
and
the
image
of
the
star
they
present),
media
coverage
(from
interviews
about
career
and
private
life
through
to
tabloid
gossip),
live
performance
(the
image
through
the
stage
show)
and
arguably
most
significantly
the
music
videos,
which
may
draw
upon
the
image
presented
in
each
of
the
other
aspects.
Each
video
may
also
draw
upon
its
predecessor
both
in
reinforcing
the
star’s
existing
image
and
in
taking
the
image
on
further,
perhaps
in
new
directions.
Thus
even
more
than
Hollywood
films
may
be
seen
as
vehicles
for
their
stars,
music
videos
will
act
as
a
showcase
for
their
talents
and
a
significant
part
in
the
construction
and
maintenance
of
their
image.
Voyeurism
This
idea
comes
from
Freud,
and
has
been
much
used
in
Media
Studies,
particularly
in
explaining
the
gendered
pleasures
of
cinema.
Broadly
it
refers
to
the
idea
of
looking
in
order
to
gain
sexual
pleasure.
It
has
been
argued
that
the
male
viewer’s
gaze
at
the
screen
is
geared
to
notions
of
voyeurism
in
that
it
is
a
powerful
controlling
gaze
at
the
objectified
female
on
display.
In
music
promos,
as
we
have
seen,
the
female
on
display
has
been
a
staple
element
through
the
Scopitones
to
Duran
Duran
and
beyond.
Goodwin
argues
that
the
female
performer
will
frequently
be
objectified
in
this
fashion,
often
through
a
combination
of
camerawork
and
editing
with
fragmented
body
shots
emphasising
a
sexualised
treatment
of
the
star.
In
male
performance
videos
too
the
idea
of
voyeuristic
treatment
of
the
female
body
is
often
apparent
with
the
use
of
dancers
as
adornments
flattering
the
male
star
ego.
This
process
of
males,
viewing
an
objectified
female
is
referred
to
by
Laura
Mulvey
as
the
‘male
gaze’.
The
idea
becomes
more
complex
when
we
see
the
male
body
on
display
and
we
might
raise
questions
about
how
the
female
viewer
is
invited
to
respond
–
often
referred
to
as
the
‘female
gaze’.
Exhibitionism

3.
Equally,
the
apparently
more
powerful
independent
female
artists
of
recent
years,
from
Madonna
onwards,
have
added
to
the
complexity
of
the
gaze
by
being
at
once
sexually
provocative
and
apparently
in
control
of,
and
inviting,
a
sexualised
gaze
–
in
what
could
be
termed
the
opposite
of
voyeurism:
exhibitionism.
Debate
is
increasingly
polarised,
as
it
is
on
pornography
–
who
is
exploiting
whom?
Is
the
female
flesh
on
display
a) An
exploitation
of
the
female
body
to
increase
(predominantly)
male
profit
margins.
b) A
life-­‐enhancing
assertion
of
female
self-­‐confidence
and
sexual
independence.
Intertextuality
The
music
video
is
often
described
as
‘postmodern’,
a
slippery
term
which
is
sometimes
used
as
a
substitute
for
intertextuality.
Broadly,
if
we
see
music
promos
as
frequently
drawing
upon
existing
texts
in
order
to
spark
recognition
in
the
audience,
we
have
a
working
definition
of
‘intertextuality’.
Not
all
audiences
will
necessarily
spot
the
reference
and
this
need
not
massively
detract
from
their
pleasure
in
the
text
itself,
but
it
is
often
argued
that
greater
pleasure
will
be
derived
by
those
who
know
the
reference
and
are
somehow
flattered
by
this.
It
is
perhaps
not
surprising
that
so
many
music
videos
draw
upon
cinema
as
a
starting
point,
since
their
directors
are
often
film
school
graduates
looking
to
move
on
eventually
to
the
film
industry
itself.
From
Madonna’s
‘Material
Girl’
(Mary
Lambert
1985,
drawing
on
‘Diamonds
are
a
Girl’s
Best
Friend’)
to
2Pac
and
Dr
Dre’s
‘California
Love’
(Hype
Williams
1996,
drawing
on
‘Mad
Max’)
there
are
many
examples
of
cinematic
references
which
dominate
music
video.
Television
is
often
a
point
of
reference
too,
as
in
The
Beastie
Boys’
spoof
cop
show
titles
sequence
for
Sabotage
(Spike
Jonze
1994)
or
REMs
recent
news
show
parody
‘Bad
Day’
(Tim
Hope
2003).
John
Stewart
sees
visual
reference
in
music
video
coming
from
a
range
of
sources,
though
the
three
most
frequent
are
perhaps
cinema,
fashion
and
art
photography.
Fashion
sometimes
takes
the
form
of
specific
catwalk
references
and
sometimes
even
the
use
of
supermodels,
as
by
George
Michael
in
both
‘Father
Figure’(Morahan/Michael
1988)
and
‘Freedom’
(Fincher
1990).
Probably
the
most
memorable
example
of
reference
to
fashion
photography
is
Robert
Palmer’s
‘Addicted
to
Love’
(Donovan
1986),
parodied
many
times
for
its
use
of
mannequin
style
females
in
the
band
fronted
by
a
besuited
Palmer.
Shania
Twain
copied
it
for
her
‘Man
I
feel
like
a
woman’
(Paul
Boyd
1999)
and
Tamra
Davis
directed
a
$350
parody
of
it
for
Tone
Loc’s
‘Wild
Thing’
(1988).
For
the
near
future,
John
Stewart
suspects
that
the
influence
of
video
games
will
predominate
for
the
younger
audience
with
the
more
plasticised
look
of
characters
emerging
(as
seen
for
example
in
Robbie
Williams’
‘Let
Love
be
your
Energy’
dir.
Olly
Reed
2001
and
The
Red
Hot
Chilli
Peppers
‘Californication’
dir.Jonathan
Dayton
and
Valerie
Faris
2000)
His
description
of
the
music
video
“incorporating,
raiding
and
reconstructing”
is
essentially
the
essence
of
intertextuality,
using
something
with
which
the
audience
may
be
familiar
to
generate
both
potentially
nostalgic
associations
and
new
meanings.
It
is
perhaps
more
explicitly
evident
in
the
music
video
than
in
any
other
media
form,
with
the
possible

4. exception
of
advertising.