SlideShare uma empresa Scribd logo
1 de 96
Baixar para ler offline
Ecology & Ecosystems
Environmental Studies
Unit-2
Ecology and Ecosystems
 Ecology is the scientific study of relations that living
organisms have with respect to each other and their
natural environment.
 Under ecology, we study various ecosystems which are a
part of the biosphere.
 An ecosystem includes all the organisms and the nonliving
environment that are found in a particular place.
Ecological Succession
1
Ecological Succession
 Ecological succession is the
observed process of change in
the species structure of an
ecological community over
time.
 Ecological succession occurs
when the conditions of an
environment suddenly and
drastically change. 2
Trophic Levels
• A tropic level is the position occupied
by an organism in a food chain.
Trophic levels can be analyzed on an
energy pyramid.
• Producers are found at the base of
the pyramid and compromise the first
trophic level.
• Primary consumers make up the
second trophic level.
• Secondary consumers make up the
third trophic level.
• Finally tertiary consumers make up
the top trophic level.
3
Food Chain
 A food chain shows the feeding relationship between
different living things in a particular habitat.
 Food chains show how energy is passed from the sun to
producers, from producers to consumers, and from
consumers to decomposers.
 In any ecosystem, many food chains overlap. When this
happens, the food chain forms a food web.
Grazing Food Chain
The "grazing" food chain includes the producers
and consumers that cycle energy from living
plants. The "detritus" food chain cycles energy
from non-living remains of both plants and
animals (also called detritus).
The "grazing" food chain has a number of steps
that start with the producers, or the plants,
and flows through a series of levels of consumers.
At each step only about 10% of the energy is
passed up through the chain. The rest is passed
back into the atmosphere as heat through
breathing and decomposition.
4
In the first step plants convert the sun’s energy to chemical energy through a
process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy is stored both as food and
as structural elements in the plant.
The next step involves the primary consumers, animals that eat only plants.
At step three are the secondary consumers, also called predators; these
animals eat primary consumers.
At step four are the tertiary consumers that eat secondary consumers, and
sometimes primary consumers as well
Detritus food chain
The "detritus" food chain cycles energy from non-
living remains of both plants and animals (also called
detritus).
The "detritus" food chain is a system where the energy produced by the breakdown of dead plant and
animal matter is cycled into the "grazing" food chain.
Detritus is organic matter formed by decaying animal or plant tissue, or fecal matter.
Detritus eaters (or detritivores) such as insects, worms and other small organisms feed on dead plants,
waste products from animals and dead animals.
Decomposers are fungal or bacterial organisms that work within the dead material to help break it down,
activating decay and decomposition.
This important part of the ecosystem takes the last of the energy that was originally absorbed by the plants
and returns it to the soil.
5
Characteristics of Detritus Food Chain
a)Primary source of energy is dead organic matter called 'detritus'
which are fallen leaves, plant parts or dead animal bodies.
b) Primary consumers are 'detritivores' including protozoans,
bacteria, fungi, etc which feed upon the detritus saprophytically.
c) Detritivores are in turn eaten by secondary consumers such as
insect larvae, nematodes, etc.
d) Detritus food chains are generally shorter than grazing food chains
e) In nature, detritus food chains are vital as the dead organic matter
of grazing food chain is acted upon by the detritivores to recycle the
inorganic elements into the ecosystem.
PRODUCERS
GRASS
GRASS
PRIMARY
CONSUMERS
SECONDARY
CONSUMERS
CARNIVORES
DEER
HERBIVORES
LION
6
Food Web
 Food Webs are Food Chains that
intersect each other. Food webs are
what really happens in nature.
 A predator from one food chain may
be linked to the prey of another food
chain
 Several food chains linked together
7
Ecological pyramids
An ecological pyramid is a graphical
representation designed to show…….
 the number of organisms,
 energy relationships, and
 biomass of an ecosystem.
They are also called Eltonian pyramids after Charles
Elton, who developed the concept of ecological
pyramids.
Charles Elton (1927) developed the concept of ecological
pyramids who noted that "…the animals at the base
of a food chain are relatively abundant while those at
the end are relatively few in number…"
8
Producer organisms (usually green plants) form the base
of the pyramid,
With succeeding levels above representing the different
trophic levels (respective position of the organisms
within ecological food chains).
Succeeding levels in the pyramid represent the
dependence of the organisms at a given level on the
organisms at lower level.
There are three types of pyramids:
of numbers, of biomass, and of energy.
9
Pyramid of Biomass
 Biomass is (is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area
or ecosystem at a given time) renewable organic (living) material.
 A pyramid of biomass is a representation of the amount of energy
contained in biomass, at different trophic levels for a particular time.
 It is measured in grams per meter2, or calories per meter2. This
demonstrates the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.
 Each level is dependent on its lower level for energy, hence the lower
level determines how much energy will be available to the upper
level. Also, energy is lost in transfer so the amount of energy is less
higher up the pyramid.
 There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright
and inverted.
 An upright pyramid is one where the combined
weight of producers is larger than the combined
weight of consumers. An example is a forest
ecosystem.
 An inverted pyramid is one where the combined
weight of producers is smaller than the combined
weight of consumers. An example is an aquatic
ecosystem.
10
Pyramid of Numbers
 The pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms in each trophic level.
This pyramid consists of a plot of relationships between the number herbivores
(primary consumers), first level carnivore (secondary consumers), second level
carnivore (tertiary consumers) and so forth. This shape varies from ecosystem to
ecosystem because the number of organisms at each level is variable
 Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three types of pyramids of numbers.
 An aquatic ecosystem is an example of upright pyramid where the number of
organisms becomes fewer and fewer higher up in the pyramid.
 A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially upright pyramid, as fewer
producers support more primary consumers, but there are less secondary and
tertiary consumers.
 An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the number of organisms depending
on the lower levels grows closer toward the apex. A parasitic food chain is an
example.
11
12
Pyramid of Energy
The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy
consumed by each trophic level. An energy pyramid is always
upright as the total amount of energy available for utilization
in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower
levels. This happens because during energy transfer from lower
to higher levels, some energy is always lost.
Ecosystem
13
Functions of Natural Ecosystem
Air pollution are tapped by leaves of tree and
convert into harmless compounds
Waste water gets filtrated through the natural
soil and make drinkable
Types Of Ecosystems
Forest Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem
Desert Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystem
Estuarine Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
 A forest ecosystem is a
terrestrial unit of living
organisms.
 All interacting among
themselves and with the
environment (soil, climate,
water and light) in which
they live. 14
Types Of Forest Ecosystems
Tropical Rain Forest
( Average rain fall: <150cm/year)
Temp: 18oC
Warmed , humid, high diversity of
animal, plant, insects
Tropical Deciduous Forest
(Rain fall: 100-120cm/yr)
Climate is not evenly distributed
Temperate Deciduous
(cold climate, annual temp: 7-15oC)
Summer is very hot and winter is very cold
Tall decidous tree
Boreal Forest/TIAGA/CONIFEROUS
Climate is very cold
Rainfall: 100mm to 350 mm
Temperate Rain forest
Very cold
Winter rain fall
Summer is very hot and Dry
Functions Forest Ecosystems
Enhance the water resources in both quality
and quantity
 Hydrological cycle depend on the forest
ecosystem
Forest gives shelter to wildlife and fish
Considered as a pathway for exchange and
regulation of atmospheric gases, water and trace
elements
Coniferous forest of Alaska Tropical rain forest
Deciduous Forest
15
Grassland Ecosystem
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated
by grasses
Types Of Grassland
Ecosystem
Tropical and Savannas
grasslands
 Tropical and subtropical grasslands,
savannas, and shrublands are
a grassland terrestrial biome located
in semi-arid to semi-
humid climate regions
of subtropical and tropical latitudes.
Tropical grasslands include the savanna
usually associated with Africa, and
savanna-type grasslands found in India,
Australia, Nepal and the Americas.
16
 Temperate grasslands
 Temperature: warm to hot season (often with a cold to
freezing season in winter)
 Soil: fertile with rich nutrients and minerals
 Plants: grass; trees or shrubs in savanna and shrubland
 Animals: large, grazing mammals; birds; reptiles
 Rain fall: 25-60cm/yr
 Although large areas have now been converted to
agriculture, in the past temperate grasslands were
home to herds of large grazing animals such as bison,
deer or kangaroos.
 North America, the steppes of Russia and the pampas
of Argentina.
17
Flooded Grass land
 Flooded grasslands and savannas is a
terrestrial biome.
 Its component ecoregions are generally
located at subtropical
and tropical latitudes, which
are flooded seasonally or year-round.
 A common term is swamp.
Characteristics
Flooded grasslands are characterized by:
 very wet to saturated soil moisture
content in nutrient rich soils.
 in temperate—warm to tropical—hot
climates.
 They are found as grasslands, savannas,
and wetlands.
18
Tundra Biome
Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes.
Tundra comes from the Spanish word
tunturia, meaning treeless plain.
It is noted for its frost-molded
landscapes, extremely low
temperatures, little precipitation, poor
nutrients, and short growing seasons.
The two major nutrients are nitrogen
and phosphorus. Nitrogen is created by
biological fixation, and phosphorus is
created by precipitation.
Tundra is separated into two types:
arctic tundra and alpine tundra.
characteristics
Extremely cold climate
Low biotic diversity
Simple vegetation structure
Short season of growth and reproduction
Energy and nutrients in the form of dead
organic material
19
Arctic
Arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere, encircling the north pole
and extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga.
The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions.
The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days.
The average winter temperature is -34° C (-30° F), but the average summer
temperature is 3-12° C (37-54° F) which enables this biome to sustain life.
Rainfall may vary in different regions of the arctic. Yearly precipitation,
including melting snow, is 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). Soil is formed slowly.
Alpine
Alpine tundra is located on mountains throughout the world at high altitude
where trees cannot grow. The growing season is approximately 180 days
Mammals: pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep, elk
Birds: grouselike birds
Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies
Montane
High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain
ranges around the world, like the Páramo
of the Andes Mountains. They are part of the
montane grasslands and shrublands biome and
also constitute tundra.
Desert and xeric
Also called desert grasslands, this is
composed of sparse grassland ecoregions
located in the deserts and xeric shrublands
biome
20
Desert Ecosystem
 A desert ecosystem exists where
there is little rainfall and the
climate is extreme in harshness.
 It occupies about 17% of the
earth’s surface.
21
Types Of Desert Ecosystem
Temperate Deserts: Sahara in Africa, Thar
in Rajasthan
Tropical Deserts: Mojave in south
California
Cold Deserts: Gobi desert in China
Components of desert
Ecosystem
A biotic components: Nutrition's present in the soil and aerial
environment
Biotic Components:
Producers: There are shrubs, Grasses and few trees. Some
time few cacti
Consumers: Reptiles, Insects, Birds mammals and camels
Decomposers: There are very few, as due to poor vegetation
the amount of dead organic matter is less.
There are few fungi and most of them are thermophlic
Thar Desert
Sahara Desert
Mojave in south California
Gobi desert in China
22
Aquatic Ecosystem
 It is an ecosystem located in
a water bodies.
 The two main types of
aquatic ecosystems are
marine ecosystems and
freshwater ecosystems. 23
Types Of Aquatic Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
1. Pond ecosystem
2. Lake ecosystem
3. Stream
4. Riverine Ecosystem
5. Fresh water marshes ecosystem
On the basis of water flow, fresh water
ecosystem classified into two
- Lentic ecosystem (Standing water
bodies)
- Lotic ecosystem (Running or flowing
water bodies)
LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS
 Lotic ecosystem may be perennial or seasonal
 Perennials occasionally subjected to floods which
cause damage to the surrounding areas
 Lotic series distinguished by continued flow of water in
one direction
 Lotic systems are richer in oxygen and nutrients than
lentic systems
Egs:Spring,Stream or river ecosystems
LENTIC ECOSYSTEM
 It may be perennial or seasonal
 Oxygen content in the surface water to a depth of 3-
5 meters is enough to support life
 In deeper levels oxygen is less and biological
activities decreases
 In bottom levels anaerobic conditions prevail and
organisms that can thrive under such conditions are
found at this depth
 Egs: Lake,Pond,Swamp,Reservoirs etc
24
POND ECOSYSTEM
It is a simplest fresh water aquatic ecosystem
It is a small body of standing shallow water
It may receive enough water during rainy season
It is a self sufficient & self regulatory ecosystem
Life span of small seasonal ponds ranges from a
few weeks or months
Life span of larger ponds are several hundred
years
Pond water contain a mixture of living organisms,
both plants & animals, and inorganic and organic
components.
LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Big and natural fresh water bodies with standing
water
Functions like a giant permanent pond
Lakes are formed when precipitation run-off or
ground water seepage fills up depressions in the
land formed by geological changes.
ZONATION
A large lake has four
zones(depending on the depth).They
are:
- LITTORAL: upper zone ,shallow
water near the shore of lake.
-LIMNETIC: open water away from
the shore of lake.
-PROFOUNDAL:deep water,too
dark,not found plants or algae.
-BENTHIC: bottom of the lake.
25
Types of Lake
Artificial lake: Due to construction
Obligotrophic lake: Low nutrition concentration
Masotrphic: Moderate Nutrition
Eutrophic: More amount of Nutrition : Dal Lake
Dystrophic lake: Brown water with low pH and humic
acid
Desert salt lake: High concentration of Salts: Sambhar
lake Rajasthan
Volcanic lake: It occures by volcano: Japan
Meromictic lake : Rich in salt
RIVER AND STREAM ECOSYSTEM
They are flowing fresh water bodies.
Flowing water follows distinct “channels”.
Small channels – STREAMS
Large channels – RIVERS
Plants and animals live in streams and rivers
depend upon the movement and speed of the
water.
B.tech. i es unit 2 environment ecology and ecosystem
B.tech. i es unit 2 environment ecology and ecosystem
FRESHWATER MARSHES
ECOSYSTEM
It tend to be naturally fertile ecosystem.
It is valuable in maintaining water tables in
adjacent ecosystems.
Periodic fluctuations in water levels resulting
from seasonal and annual rainfall variation often
accomplishes tidal like actions in terms of
maintaining long range stability and fertility.
Marine Ecosystem
70% world cover by the water and 97% of this
water is available in oceans and Seas.
They play key role in survival of 2,50,000 species
Oceans are major sinks of CO2 and play
important role in Carbon cycle, Hydrological
cycle
Major ocean: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic
Pacific: Largest and cover 1/3 part of Earth
 Coastal Zone: Relatively warmer, Nutrition rich shallow water
with sunlight and high production
 Open Sea: Deeper part of ocean and away from submerged
part of Continent is called continental shelf.
 Euphotic zone: Received Enough light
 Bathyal Zone: Dim light
 Abyssal Zone: 1.5 to 5 km deep dark zone. No solar energy
26
Components of marine
ecosystem
Abiotic Components: Salt concentration in open
sea is usually 3.5 % while dominant ions are
sodium, chloride, sulpher magnasium and calcium
Biotic components:
Producers: phytoplanktons : macro and micro algae,
cynobacteria
Consumers: Herbivorous and Carnivores and top
carnivorous
Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi
Biogeochemical CyclesBiogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical Cycles
describe the flow of essential elementsessential elements from the environment through living
organisms and back into the environment.
The biogeochemical cycle is the continuous flow of elements and compounds
between organisms and the earth
Types of cycles
Hydrological cycle: deal with the interchange of
water with organisms and environment
Gaseous cycle: Deal with inter change with gases
Sedimentary cycle: Deals with SO4 and PO4 cycle
and concern with the interchange of nutrition and
minerals
Elemental Cycles
H, O, and C make up > 99 % of the Earth’s biomass
N, Ca, K, Mg, S, and P are significant nutrients
Cycling of C, O, N, P, and S are discussed in this
chapter
Concepts in Biogeo. Cycles
 Reservoir - where material or mass is stored
 Flux: rate of flow of material
 Steady state: inflow = outflow
 Dynamic state: fluxes are reservoirs are changing
with time
 Residence time: length of time a chemical stays in a
reservoir
 Feedback: positive and negative
Hydrological cycle
1. Reservoir – oceans, air (as water vapor), groundwater, lakes and
glaciers; evaporation, wind and precipitation (rain) move water from
oceans to land.
2. Assimilation – plants absorb water from the ground, animals drink
water or eat other organisms which are composed mostly of water.
3. Release – plants transpire, animals breathe and expel liquid wastes.
Steps
Evaporation and transpiration
Condensation and formation of cloud: Rising air current all the vapour
up into the atmosphere cool  formation of cloud cloud is made
up of droplet of water
Precipitation: Snow or rain fall
Run off and collection of under ground water
Infiltration and percolation
Hydrological Cycle
27
Human Impact
Pollution of water
Reduces the vegetation cover increases the
surface ran off decreases the percolation
Global warming
Heavy deforestation reduces the transpiration
loss of water through plants and trees
Carbon cycle
Earth atmosphere contains 0.03% of CO2
CO2 is the basic source of carbon and
constitutes of all organic material
It found in caves ands mines and also evolves
from volcanoes
Reservoirs of Carbon
Carbon is found in all four spheres
Biosphere - organic matter
Atmosphere - CO2, CH4
Hydrosphere - H2CO3 ,HCO3
-
, CO3
=
Lithosphere - CaCO3 , coal, oil, and gas
Processes: photosynthesis, formation of sediments, weathering,
combustion, plate tectonics
Decay of organic material
Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle
(carbon is required for building organic compounds)
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as CO2), fossil fuels (oil, coal),
durable organic materials (for example:
cellulose).
2. Assimilation – plants use CO2 in photosynthesis; animals
consume plants.
3. Release – plants and animals release CO2 through
respiration and decomposition; CO2 is released
as wood and fossil fuels are burned.
Carbon Cycle
28
Human Interference
Human-induced processes
Extraction and combustion of fossil fuels (speeds up
the medium-term cycling)
Cement manufacturing
Deforestation (biomass burning)
All of these processes release CO2 into the
atmosphere and affect the natural cycling of carbon
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of animals and
plants.
Green plant combined with Nitrogen and
carbohydrates to make proteins and Nucleic acid
78 %
Not directly used most form of life
Taken by Process called nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle
(Nitrogen is required for the manufacture of
amino acids and nucleic acids)
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as N2); soil (as NH4
+
or
ammonium, NH3 or ammonia, N02
-
or
nitrite, N03
-
or nitrate
Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle
2. Assimilation – plants absorb nitrogen as either
NH4
+
or as N03
-
, animals obtain nitrogen
by eating plants and other animals. The
stages in the assimilation of nitrogen
are as follows:
Steps
Nitrogen fixation
Ammonification
Nitrification and Denitrification
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen Fixation: N2 to NH4
+
by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (prokaryotes
in the soil and root nodules), N2 to N03
-
by lightning
and UV radiation.
1. Biological : Nitrogen fixing bacteria
2. Industrial fixation: fertilizer
3. Electrification( N2 + O2-- Nitrogen Oxide
Amonification: Amino acid and urea- Ammonia
Nitrification:
1. Nitrogen fixation
Combination of Nitrogen with other element
2. Ammonification
Organic Nitrogen- NH3
3. Nitrification and denitrification
Ammonia(NH3)- ----- Nitrite forming bacteria(Nitromonas)----- Nitrite(NO2)
Nitrite(NO2)--------Nitrobacter--------------- Nitrate
Nitrate(NO3)--------Denitrification(Pseudomonas)--- Nitrogen
Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle
3. Release – Denitrifying bacteria convert N03
-
back
to N2 (denitrification); detrivorous
bacteria convert organic compounds
back to NH4
+
(ammonification); animals
excrete NH4
+
(or NH3) urea, or uric acid.
Nitrogen Cycle
29
30
Human Impact
Harvesting of timber
Automobile and industrial exhaust
Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with
the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce
acids.
NO2 + OH· → HNO3
Eutrophication
Oxygen Cycle
Essential for aerobic life
Closely linked to carbon cycle
Very large reservoir (21% of gas in atm.), not susceptible to human
interference
Also, not a greenhouse gas
Reservoirs: atmosphere, surface organic material (biosphere), and buried
organic matter (lithosphere)
Oxygen Cycle
Processes
Photosynthesis/ respiration: short-term cycle; balanced on land;
excess O2 in ocean -phytoplanktons
Mineral oxidation, weathering, burial - removes O2 from
atmosphere
Combustion or weathering of organic matter - removes O2 from
atmosphere
Atmosphere => marine biota => sediments => rocks =>
atmosphere (fig )
Oxygen
Cycle
31
Phosphorus Cycle
32
Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle
(Phosphorus is required for the manufacture
of ATP and all nucleic acids)
1. Reservoir – erosion transfers phosphorus to water and soil;
sediments and rocks that accumulate on ocean
floors return to the surface as a result of uplifting by
geological processes
2. Assimilation – plants absorb inorganic PO4
3-
(phosphate)from
soils; animals obtain organic phosphorus when they
plants and other animals
3. Release – plants and animals release phosphorus when they
decompose; animals excrete phosphorus in their
waste products
Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle
1. Reservoir – erosion transfers
phosphorus to water and soil;
sediments and rocks that
accumulate on ocean floors return
to the surface as a result of uplifting
by geological processes
2. Assimilation – plants absorb
inorganic PO4
3-
(phosphate)from
soils; animals obtain organic
phosphorus when they plants and
other animals
3. Release – plants and animals
release phosphorus when they
decompose; animals excrete
phosphorus in their waste products
33
Biogeochemical cycles of other minerals,
such as calcium and magnesium, are
similar to the phosphorus cycle.
References/Sources
1. https://lh5.ggpht.com/H2dq WsdPCrPGpOOsCS1f79kJCCu2IcRa4rgIFVyMYv0ed0xKM
2. https://lh4.ggpht.com/lal2jVY5nTqn-GYyGkNhOhEqbBwunhrQBzG68xJAs5pDe_1aIMv
3. https://lh4.ggpht.com/8bjS8iqi4zzR-ztiMXz2hgjGOGGUS8AMGN1tgpWCEYIx2QUMs8
4. https://lh3.ggpht.com/H1N_Kb3iEM3D9-Picz9yIF7BNGfYzxsDIBVvJe2r4HPZ-B60Qw_
5. https://lh4.ggpht.com/ZoYBuSR4OAetsf9Na4mwRp7sbnW2jAb3gQItbnuIQWfW6EWSU
6. https://lh4.ggpht.com/QouMVLtdYF9J5Xrz8wCmv-e7_OTGgdRAK1BBTmi0F1FrzGl4If
7. https://lh4.ggpht.com/eylCTs29meic1tKd8Ucy58-zmedwIWxjhT7oIF3M2aifdMbqC9vRX
8. https://lh6.ggpht.com/uSxc2sdAeDFVfeSje2xwLBqm89do_hoosxY9p6OhsLxPchW52V
9. https://lh4.ggpht.com/pW3IYpfQP5boJp9RH5lOAwYYBAcoaXziNwo9to2ZIOK5dsRGfh
10.https://lh4.ggpht.com/-qDNe-rS_wlb_uMkQr_8iSF6OSYB8Dgqa4zBtQUR1Hla_z1ebpa
11. https://lh3.ggpht.com/pMRtqE8hnDqCMIuuE5R4VTIDAT9Yj_KddkX3kQgILLzmIv
12. https://lh4.ggpht.com/NpHetwkBTgIptqOSIz43iUV0-xCiGbcwudy1iXPj_QrVMiAK
13. https://lh3.ggpht.com/jB0b-LrnXVA4T7qCMzAAWRbC4bpYxpGEf3csySGZ5wnKC
14. https://lh3.ggpht.com/hN2v5TWrNrJmTDBGzZ4FBhHMOEuZRJuMUivQkN8zDccT
15. https://lh4.ggpht.com/qAhs9XnefWApsz4w_0PvfaIJNQFzoAfL3dfrNduqvl1nCsfD
16. https://lh5.ggpht.com/2HNzKyG5_cw2gyRK2gks4jDoQO0VfQp6K1Mhd_g7zQEB
17. https://lh6.ggpht.com/KxV3xbr3kiMOe4oqrwtkovN1nFd9aoqJG0-MEU1Ay9hFnT
18. https://lh5.ggpht.com/t4p2rm66kwhsaAy7ZnHQPsKLSftOMoEGzgn8iv4Fy31DrB
19. https://lh4.ggpht.com/QOn_1o9GvgE_jWbKWnHicd6gdLBGrPATtABO8oSpm3a_
20. https://lh5.ggpht.com/JOghxjEzJ4rEZk4eI_rgp-gMG5KP_T2NqYADBpxayfGow1TW
21. https://lh4.ggpht.com/ANB3fOJea4GnjqpFE2NEG-LG095W-k9wLKbIS0F2CMlqM
22. https://lh3.ggpht.com/6BVS2KMpIbSSy9SwNslKg4VI1T5ZJp0vzx8pouenNzdIf-vxP
23. https://lh4.ggpht.com/O0Tef7MPahcV4Wq4lbkho2rnafNZ9lFX0HmET_iYAo
nh8yHrJ2_6_RZtmVKEVit0dj18K6Y=s88
24. https://lh6.ggpht.com/9N_YMc2xBXTH3LhJgm47-
RZ1Tmcj9dYgpbdlhcwiWehNedm3InWx9QZcwGDpsgwWsuYurFk=s109
25. https://lh4.ggpht.com/kwDP_QNbM13TnEUWvVtNmDs9d5Py5RW4WlpoF
ptNJ8_yaKIA-spRAX_F495qkBWplH-9eSs=s131
26. https://lh4.ggpht.com/5qUlTUGvnKp24MwkwcGiElzL0MtSCUQQl00UqorLlT
NjcKShsdk-NwwgAgJKasC5rr_P4Q=s119
27. https://lh5.ggpht.com/YcuXul7f8TVY5HwXoK0lGIFLDDVFKsFukYyFh2OicfgO
D0N1EdCpelLhO9oFsf-DYWJQR40=s112
28. https://lh4.ggpht.com/MF0yJQBypOTf-LwfF-
WjZANZ1OOJmn0E5gOtfwD7l7CWeD-yIHlBg96spbSIEn5YDzsyyw=s85
29. https://lh6.ggpht.com/XveKC4eCf-izIRSCczOsWM3WrB-dAQ4XBeJ-
srEW_1NH1AHfa1h2zMPut6dsAcOAa9oym44=s129
30. https://lh3.ggpht.com/6uGiBEBa2VCvsUVoeh7mcjfhmE_uvvAAF5PulQbiqi
2VHMa6LBlyVE70wbTHbJfXUtHHVY4=s85
31. https://lh4.ggpht.com/RlQIuwaG3OdM4VoIQiq4BW8URhkwcrf7Tyx3Sp7v
V1e258isYr_RAQYQJl5EsXObaHa3xA=s85
32. https://lh5.ggpht.com/inUdRc-
SxFJd74wYMrXQ_qfQuphz3Vv0zciYKQQLXyhhxidsFybgBTb9lo97Tm27UTO
6HQ=s97
33. https://lh4.ggpht.com/OuvgkVuf6hIxtMC8KZ1aiJmiSscQ3MfjqPR0BHrhNk
jLNzt9wE_RNXsLPraJtHPm32kDS1U=s97
Book/Web Resources
• Environment & Ecology by Dr Gourkrishna
Dasmohapatra

Mais conteúdo relacionado

Mais procurados

Mais procurados (20)

Aquatic ecosystemsppt
Aquatic ecosystemspptAquatic ecosystemsppt
Aquatic ecosystemsppt
 
Nutrient cycling
Nutrient cyclingNutrient cycling
Nutrient cycling
 
Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus cyclePhosphorus cycle
Phosphorus cycle
 
Freshwater ecosystem (2)
Freshwater ecosystem (2)Freshwater ecosystem (2)
Freshwater ecosystem (2)
 
managment plan for ecosystem in KPk.pptx
managment plan for ecosystem in KPk.pptxmanagment plan for ecosystem in KPk.pptx
managment plan for ecosystem in KPk.pptx
 
6377.types of ecosystems 10
6377.types of ecosystems  106377.types of ecosystems  10
6377.types of ecosystems 10
 
Ecology & Ecosystems
Ecology & EcosystemsEcology & Ecosystems
Ecology & Ecosystems
 
Eutrophication
EutrophicationEutrophication
Eutrophication
 
forest ecosystem
forest ecosystem forest ecosystem
forest ecosystem
 
CARBON CYCLE (teach)
CARBON CYCLE (teach)CARBON CYCLE (teach)
CARBON CYCLE (teach)
 
Eutrophication
EutrophicationEutrophication
Eutrophication
 
Introduction to Ecology
Introduction to EcologyIntroduction to Ecology
Introduction to Ecology
 
Ecological succession
Ecological successionEcological succession
Ecological succession
 
Biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical cyclesBiogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical cycles
 
Major ecosystem
Major ecosystemMajor ecosystem
Major ecosystem
 
Agri runoff and coastal zone
Agri runoff and coastal zoneAgri runoff and coastal zone
Agri runoff and coastal zone
 
Ecology & Ecosystem
Ecology & EcosystemEcology & Ecosystem
Ecology & Ecosystem
 
Phycoremediation – a clean technology for water pollution abatement
Phycoremediation – a clean technology for water pollution abatementPhycoremediation – a clean technology for water pollution abatement
Phycoremediation – a clean technology for water pollution abatement
 
Fresh water ecosystems
Fresh water ecosystemsFresh water ecosystems
Fresh water ecosystems
 
Role of microbes in Agriculture
Role of microbes in AgricultureRole of microbes in Agriculture
Role of microbes in Agriculture
 

Destaque

Types of ecosystem
Types of ecosystemTypes of ecosystem
Types of ecosystembhanu_
 
Ecosystems PowerPoint Presentation
Ecosystems PowerPoint PresentationEcosystems PowerPoint Presentation
Ecosystems PowerPoint Presentationmaldjuan
 
U06 Ecosystems
U06 EcosystemsU06 Ecosystems
U06 EcosystemsAlkor
 
Marine ecosystem
Marine ecosystemMarine ecosystem
Marine ecosystempklaumir
 
Food chain,food web, forest ecosystem
Food chain,food web, forest ecosystemFood chain,food web, forest ecosystem
Food chain,food web, forest ecosystemVarun Karthikeyan
 
Chapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
Chapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEMChapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
Chapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEMguest9faf5c1
 
Ecosystem
EcosystemEcosystem
EcosystemKumar
 
Marine Ecosystems
Marine EcosystemsMarine Ecosystems
Marine Ecosystemspg8s
 
Types of ecosystem
Types of ecosystemTypes of ecosystem
Types of ecosystemSmit Saraiya
 
Ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factors
Ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factorsEcosystems, biotic and abiotic factors
Ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factorsDavid Young
 

Destaque (20)

Types of ecosystem
Types of ecosystemTypes of ecosystem
Types of ecosystem
 
Ecosystems PowerPoint Presentation
Ecosystems PowerPoint PresentationEcosystems PowerPoint Presentation
Ecosystems PowerPoint Presentation
 
Coniferous Forest
Coniferous ForestConiferous Forest
Coniferous Forest
 
Ecology and ecosystem
Ecology and ecosystemEcology and ecosystem
Ecology and ecosystem
 
U06 Ecosystems
U06 EcosystemsU06 Ecosystems
U06 Ecosystems
 
Ecosystem
 Ecosystem Ecosystem
Ecosystem
 
Ecosystems
EcosystemsEcosystems
Ecosystems
 
Marine ecosystems
Marine ecosystemsMarine ecosystems
Marine ecosystems
 
marine ecosystem
marine ecosystemmarine ecosystem
marine ecosystem
 
Marine ecosystem
Marine ecosystemMarine ecosystem
Marine ecosystem
 
Marine Ecosystem
Marine EcosystemMarine Ecosystem
Marine Ecosystem
 
Food chain,food web, forest ecosystem
Food chain,food web, forest ecosystemFood chain,food web, forest ecosystem
Food chain,food web, forest ecosystem
 
Pond ecosystem
Pond ecosystemPond ecosystem
Pond ecosystem
 
Chapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
Chapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEMChapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
Chapter 8:DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
 
Ecosystem:Structure and Function
Ecosystem:Structure and Function Ecosystem:Structure and Function
Ecosystem:Structure and Function
 
Ecosystem
EcosystemEcosystem
Ecosystem
 
Marine Ecosystems
Marine EcosystemsMarine Ecosystems
Marine Ecosystems
 
Types of ecosystem
Types of ecosystemTypes of ecosystem
Types of ecosystem
 
Ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factors
Ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factorsEcosystems, biotic and abiotic factors
Ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factors
 
Major types of ecosystems
Major types of ecosystemsMajor types of ecosystems
Major types of ecosystems
 

Semelhante a B.tech. i es unit 2 environment ecology and ecosystem

Structure Of The Ecosystem
Structure Of The EcosystemStructure Of The Ecosystem
Structure Of The EcosystemLogos Academy
 
Ecosystem concept and types
Ecosystem concept and typesEcosystem concept and types
Ecosystem concept and typesParul Tyagi
 
Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2
Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2
Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2JamilMartinez2
 
Biology 1 Unit 3 notes
Biology 1 Unit 3 notesBiology 1 Unit 3 notes
Biology 1 Unit 3 notespetersbiology
 
Pre IB Biology Ecology
Pre IB Biology Ecology Pre IB Biology Ecology
Pre IB Biology Ecology Bob Smullen
 
Adv Higher Unit2
Adv Higher Unit2Adv Higher Unit2
Adv Higher Unit2guest254572
 
Ecology ..
Ecology .. Ecology ..
Ecology .. heyylo
 
Introduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramids
Introduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramidsIntroduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramids
Introduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramidsPrashant Katti
 
Ecosystems and energy_flow
Ecosystems and energy_flowEcosystems and energy_flow
Ecosystems and energy_flowhydcosa08
 
Environment management- ECOSYSTEMS
Environment management- ECOSYSTEMSEnvironment management- ECOSYSTEMS
Environment management- ECOSYSTEMSShilpi Panchal
 
Ecology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramids
Ecology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramidsEcology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramids
Ecology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramidsMaria Donohue
 

Semelhante a B.tech. i es unit 2 environment ecology and ecosystem (20)

ppt.pptx
ppt.pptxppt.pptx
ppt.pptx
 
ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEMECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEM
 
Structure Of The Ecosystem
Structure Of The EcosystemStructure Of The Ecosystem
Structure Of The Ecosystem
 
ECOSYSTEM PPT.pptx
ECOSYSTEM PPT.pptxECOSYSTEM PPT.pptx
ECOSYSTEM PPT.pptx
 
Ecosystem concept and types
Ecosystem concept and typesEcosystem concept and types
Ecosystem concept and types
 
Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2
Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2
Ecosystems and biomes (ict)(slideshare)2
 
Biology 1 Unit 3 notes
Biology 1 Unit 3 notesBiology 1 Unit 3 notes
Biology 1 Unit 3 notes
 
Ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramidsEcological pyramids
Ecological pyramids
 
Pre IB Biology Ecology
Pre IB Biology Ecology Pre IB Biology Ecology
Pre IB Biology Ecology
 
Ecoystem complex and interaction of living organisms
Ecoystem complex and interaction of living organismsEcoystem complex and interaction of living organisms
Ecoystem complex and interaction of living organisms
 
Ecosystem
Ecosystem Ecosystem
Ecosystem
 
AQUIB ASSIGNMENT
AQUIB ASSIGNMENTAQUIB ASSIGNMENT
AQUIB ASSIGNMENT
 
Ecosystem
EcosystemEcosystem
Ecosystem
 
Ecosystem and biodiversity.compressed
Ecosystem and biodiversity.compressedEcosystem and biodiversity.compressed
Ecosystem and biodiversity.compressed
 
Adv Higher Unit2
Adv Higher Unit2Adv Higher Unit2
Adv Higher Unit2
 
Ecology ..
Ecology .. Ecology ..
Ecology ..
 
Introduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramids
Introduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramidsIntroduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramids
Introduction, environment, ecosystem, ecological pyramids
 
Ecosystems and energy_flow
Ecosystems and energy_flowEcosystems and energy_flow
Ecosystems and energy_flow
 
Environment management- ECOSYSTEMS
Environment management- ECOSYSTEMSEnvironment management- ECOSYSTEMS
Environment management- ECOSYSTEMS
 
Ecology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramids
Ecology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramidsEcology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramids
Ecology 3 energy and ecology ecological pyramids
 

Mais de Rai University

Brochure Rai University
Brochure Rai University Brochure Rai University
Brochure Rai University Rai University
 
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii,  dyeing & types of dyeing,Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii,  dyeing & types of dyeing,
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,Rai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02Rai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.3 public expenditure
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.3 public expenditureBsc agri  2 pae  u-4.3 public expenditure
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.3 public expenditureRai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.2 public finance
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.2 public financeBsc agri  2 pae  u-4.2 public finance
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.2 public financeRai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.1 introduction
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.1 introductionBsc agri  2 pae  u-4.1 introduction
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.1 introductionRai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.3 inflation
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3.3  inflationBsc agri  2 pae  u-3.3  inflation
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.3 inflationRai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economics
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsBsc agri  2 pae  u-3.2 introduction to macro economics
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsRai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.1 marketstructure
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3.1 marketstructureBsc agri  2 pae  u-3.1 marketstructure
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.1 marketstructureRai University
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3 perfect-competition
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3 perfect-competitionBsc agri  2 pae  u-3 perfect-competition
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3 perfect-competitionRai University
 

Mais de Rai University (20)

Brochure Rai University
Brochure Rai University Brochure Rai University
Brochure Rai University
 
Mm unit 4point2
Mm unit 4point2Mm unit 4point2
Mm unit 4point2
 
Mm unit 4point1
Mm unit 4point1Mm unit 4point1
Mm unit 4point1
 
Mm unit 4point3
Mm unit 4point3Mm unit 4point3
Mm unit 4point3
 
Mm unit 3point2
Mm unit 3point2Mm unit 3point2
Mm unit 3point2
 
Mm unit 3point1
Mm unit 3point1Mm unit 3point1
Mm unit 3point1
 
Mm unit 2point2
Mm unit 2point2Mm unit 2point2
Mm unit 2point2
 
Mm unit 2 point 1
Mm unit 2 point 1Mm unit 2 point 1
Mm unit 2 point 1
 
Mm unit 1point3
Mm unit 1point3Mm unit 1point3
Mm unit 1point3
 
Mm unit 1point2
Mm unit 1point2Mm unit 1point2
Mm unit 1point2
 
Mm unit 1point1
Mm unit 1point1Mm unit 1point1
Mm unit 1point1
 
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii,  dyeing & types of dyeing,Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii,  dyeing & types of dyeing,
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.3 public expenditure
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.3 public expenditureBsc agri  2 pae  u-4.3 public expenditure
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.3 public expenditure
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.2 public finance
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.2 public financeBsc agri  2 pae  u-4.2 public finance
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.2 public finance
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.1 introduction
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-4.1 introductionBsc agri  2 pae  u-4.1 introduction
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.1 introduction
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.3 inflation
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3.3  inflationBsc agri  2 pae  u-3.3  inflation
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.3 inflation
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economics
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsBsc agri  2 pae  u-3.2 introduction to macro economics
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economics
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.1 marketstructure
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3.1 marketstructureBsc agri  2 pae  u-3.1 marketstructure
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.1 marketstructure
 
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3 perfect-competition
Bsc agri  2 pae  u-3 perfect-competitionBsc agri  2 pae  u-3 perfect-competition
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3 perfect-competition
 

B.tech. i es unit 2 environment ecology and ecosystem

  • 2. Ecology and Ecosystems  Ecology is the scientific study of relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment.  Under ecology, we study various ecosystems which are a part of the biosphere.  An ecosystem includes all the organisms and the nonliving environment that are found in a particular place.
  • 4. Ecological Succession  Ecological succession is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time.  Ecological succession occurs when the conditions of an environment suddenly and drastically change. 2
  • 5. Trophic Levels • A tropic level is the position occupied by an organism in a food chain. Trophic levels can be analyzed on an energy pyramid. • Producers are found at the base of the pyramid and compromise the first trophic level. • Primary consumers make up the second trophic level. • Secondary consumers make up the third trophic level. • Finally tertiary consumers make up the top trophic level. 3
  • 6. Food Chain  A food chain shows the feeding relationship between different living things in a particular habitat.  Food chains show how energy is passed from the sun to producers, from producers to consumers, and from consumers to decomposers.  In any ecosystem, many food chains overlap. When this happens, the food chain forms a food web.
  • 7. Grazing Food Chain The "grazing" food chain includes the producers and consumers that cycle energy from living plants. The "detritus" food chain cycles energy from non-living remains of both plants and animals (also called detritus). The "grazing" food chain has a number of steps that start with the producers, or the plants, and flows through a series of levels of consumers. At each step only about 10% of the energy is passed up through the chain. The rest is passed back into the atmosphere as heat through breathing and decomposition. 4
  • 8. In the first step plants convert the sun’s energy to chemical energy through a process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy is stored both as food and as structural elements in the plant. The next step involves the primary consumers, animals that eat only plants. At step three are the secondary consumers, also called predators; these animals eat primary consumers. At step four are the tertiary consumers that eat secondary consumers, and sometimes primary consumers as well
  • 9. Detritus food chain The "detritus" food chain cycles energy from non- living remains of both plants and animals (also called detritus). The "detritus" food chain is a system where the energy produced by the breakdown of dead plant and animal matter is cycled into the "grazing" food chain. Detritus is organic matter formed by decaying animal or plant tissue, or fecal matter. Detritus eaters (or detritivores) such as insects, worms and other small organisms feed on dead plants, waste products from animals and dead animals. Decomposers are fungal or bacterial organisms that work within the dead material to help break it down, activating decay and decomposition. This important part of the ecosystem takes the last of the energy that was originally absorbed by the plants and returns it to the soil. 5
  • 10. Characteristics of Detritus Food Chain a)Primary source of energy is dead organic matter called 'detritus' which are fallen leaves, plant parts or dead animal bodies. b) Primary consumers are 'detritivores' including protozoans, bacteria, fungi, etc which feed upon the detritus saprophytically. c) Detritivores are in turn eaten by secondary consumers such as insect larvae, nematodes, etc. d) Detritus food chains are generally shorter than grazing food chains e) In nature, detritus food chains are vital as the dead organic matter of grazing food chain is acted upon by the detritivores to recycle the inorganic elements into the ecosystem.
  • 12. Food Web  Food Webs are Food Chains that intersect each other. Food webs are what really happens in nature.  A predator from one food chain may be linked to the prey of another food chain  Several food chains linked together 7
  • 14. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation designed to show…….  the number of organisms,  energy relationships, and  biomass of an ecosystem. They are also called Eltonian pyramids after Charles Elton, who developed the concept of ecological pyramids. Charles Elton (1927) developed the concept of ecological pyramids who noted that "…the animals at the base of a food chain are relatively abundant while those at the end are relatively few in number…" 8
  • 15. Producer organisms (usually green plants) form the base of the pyramid, With succeeding levels above representing the different trophic levels (respective position of the organisms within ecological food chains). Succeeding levels in the pyramid represent the dependence of the organisms at a given level on the organisms at lower level.
  • 16. There are three types of pyramids: of numbers, of biomass, and of energy. 9
  • 17. Pyramid of Biomass  Biomass is (is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time) renewable organic (living) material.  A pyramid of biomass is a representation of the amount of energy contained in biomass, at different trophic levels for a particular time.  It is measured in grams per meter2, or calories per meter2. This demonstrates the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.  Each level is dependent on its lower level for energy, hence the lower level determines how much energy will be available to the upper level. Also, energy is lost in transfer so the amount of energy is less higher up the pyramid.
  • 18.  There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and inverted.  An upright pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is larger than the combined weight of consumers. An example is a forest ecosystem.  An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers. An example is an aquatic ecosystem.
  • 19. 10
  • 20. Pyramid of Numbers  The pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms in each trophic level. This pyramid consists of a plot of relationships between the number herbivores (primary consumers), first level carnivore (secondary consumers), second level carnivore (tertiary consumers) and so forth. This shape varies from ecosystem to ecosystem because the number of organisms at each level is variable  Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three types of pyramids of numbers.  An aquatic ecosystem is an example of upright pyramid where the number of organisms becomes fewer and fewer higher up in the pyramid.  A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially upright pyramid, as fewer producers support more primary consumers, but there are less secondary and tertiary consumers.  An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the number of organisms depending on the lower levels grows closer toward the apex. A parasitic food chain is an example.
  • 21. 11
  • 22. 12
  • 23. Pyramid of Energy The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy consumed by each trophic level. An energy pyramid is always upright as the total amount of energy available for utilization in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower levels. This happens because during energy transfer from lower to higher levels, some energy is always lost.
  • 25. Functions of Natural Ecosystem Air pollution are tapped by leaves of tree and convert into harmless compounds Waste water gets filtrated through the natural soil and make drinkable
  • 26. Types Of Ecosystems Forest Ecosystem Grassland Ecosystem Desert Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem Estuarine Ecosystem
  • 27. Forest Ecosystem  A forest ecosystem is a terrestrial unit of living organisms.  All interacting among themselves and with the environment (soil, climate, water and light) in which they live. 14
  • 28. Types Of Forest Ecosystems Tropical Rain Forest ( Average rain fall: <150cm/year) Temp: 18oC Warmed , humid, high diversity of animal, plant, insects Tropical Deciduous Forest (Rain fall: 100-120cm/yr) Climate is not evenly distributed
  • 29. Temperate Deciduous (cold climate, annual temp: 7-15oC) Summer is very hot and winter is very cold Tall decidous tree Boreal Forest/TIAGA/CONIFEROUS Climate is very cold Rainfall: 100mm to 350 mm Temperate Rain forest Very cold Winter rain fall Summer is very hot and Dry
  • 30. Functions Forest Ecosystems Enhance the water resources in both quality and quantity  Hydrological cycle depend on the forest ecosystem Forest gives shelter to wildlife and fish Considered as a pathway for exchange and regulation of atmospheric gases, water and trace elements
  • 31. Coniferous forest of Alaska Tropical rain forest Deciduous Forest 15
  • 32. Grassland Ecosystem Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses
  • 33. Types Of Grassland Ecosystem Tropical and Savannas grasslands  Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands are a grassland terrestrial biome located in semi-arid to semi- humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes. Tropical grasslands include the savanna usually associated with Africa, and savanna-type grasslands found in India, Australia, Nepal and the Americas. 16
  • 34.  Temperate grasslands  Temperature: warm to hot season (often with a cold to freezing season in winter)  Soil: fertile with rich nutrients and minerals  Plants: grass; trees or shrubs in savanna and shrubland  Animals: large, grazing mammals; birds; reptiles  Rain fall: 25-60cm/yr  Although large areas have now been converted to agriculture, in the past temperate grasslands were home to herds of large grazing animals such as bison, deer or kangaroos.  North America, the steppes of Russia and the pampas of Argentina. 17
  • 35. Flooded Grass land  Flooded grasslands and savannas is a terrestrial biome.  Its component ecoregions are generally located at subtropical and tropical latitudes, which are flooded seasonally or year-round.  A common term is swamp. Characteristics Flooded grasslands are characterized by:  very wet to saturated soil moisture content in nutrient rich soils.  in temperate—warm to tropical—hot climates.  They are found as grasslands, savannas, and wetlands. 18
  • 36. Tundra Biome Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes. Tundra comes from the Spanish word tunturia, meaning treeless plain. It is noted for its frost-molded landscapes, extremely low temperatures, little precipitation, poor nutrients, and short growing seasons. The two major nutrients are nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen is created by biological fixation, and phosphorus is created by precipitation. Tundra is separated into two types: arctic tundra and alpine tundra. characteristics Extremely cold climate Low biotic diversity Simple vegetation structure Short season of growth and reproduction Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic material 19
  • 37. Arctic Arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere, encircling the north pole and extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga. The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions. The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days. The average winter temperature is -34° C (-30° F), but the average summer temperature is 3-12° C (37-54° F) which enables this biome to sustain life. Rainfall may vary in different regions of the arctic. Yearly precipitation, including melting snow, is 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). Soil is formed slowly. Alpine Alpine tundra is located on mountains throughout the world at high altitude where trees cannot grow. The growing season is approximately 180 days Mammals: pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep, elk Birds: grouselike birds Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies
  • 38. Montane High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like the Páramo of the Andes Mountains. They are part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome and also constitute tundra. Desert and xeric Also called desert grasslands, this is composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome 20
  • 39. Desert Ecosystem  A desert ecosystem exists where there is little rainfall and the climate is extreme in harshness.  It occupies about 17% of the earth’s surface. 21
  • 40. Types Of Desert Ecosystem Temperate Deserts: Sahara in Africa, Thar in Rajasthan Tropical Deserts: Mojave in south California Cold Deserts: Gobi desert in China
  • 41. Components of desert Ecosystem A biotic components: Nutrition's present in the soil and aerial environment Biotic Components: Producers: There are shrubs, Grasses and few trees. Some time few cacti Consumers: Reptiles, Insects, Birds mammals and camels Decomposers: There are very few, as due to poor vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is less. There are few fungi and most of them are thermophlic
  • 42. Thar Desert Sahara Desert Mojave in south California Gobi desert in China 22
  • 43. Aquatic Ecosystem  It is an ecosystem located in a water bodies.  The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems. 23
  • 44. Types Of Aquatic Ecosystem Freshwater Ecosystem 1. Pond ecosystem 2. Lake ecosystem 3. Stream 4. Riverine Ecosystem 5. Fresh water marshes ecosystem
  • 45. On the basis of water flow, fresh water ecosystem classified into two - Lentic ecosystem (Standing water bodies) - Lotic ecosystem (Running or flowing water bodies)
  • 46. LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS  Lotic ecosystem may be perennial or seasonal  Perennials occasionally subjected to floods which cause damage to the surrounding areas  Lotic series distinguished by continued flow of water in one direction  Lotic systems are richer in oxygen and nutrients than lentic systems Egs:Spring,Stream or river ecosystems
  • 47. LENTIC ECOSYSTEM  It may be perennial or seasonal  Oxygen content in the surface water to a depth of 3- 5 meters is enough to support life  In deeper levels oxygen is less and biological activities decreases  In bottom levels anaerobic conditions prevail and organisms that can thrive under such conditions are found at this depth  Egs: Lake,Pond,Swamp,Reservoirs etc
  • 48. 24
  • 49. POND ECOSYSTEM It is a simplest fresh water aquatic ecosystem It is a small body of standing shallow water It may receive enough water during rainy season It is a self sufficient & self regulatory ecosystem
  • 50. Life span of small seasonal ponds ranges from a few weeks or months Life span of larger ponds are several hundred years Pond water contain a mixture of living organisms, both plants & animals, and inorganic and organic components.
  • 51. LAKE ECOSYSTEM Big and natural fresh water bodies with standing water Functions like a giant permanent pond Lakes are formed when precipitation run-off or ground water seepage fills up depressions in the land formed by geological changes.
  • 52. ZONATION A large lake has four zones(depending on the depth).They are: - LITTORAL: upper zone ,shallow water near the shore of lake. -LIMNETIC: open water away from the shore of lake. -PROFOUNDAL:deep water,too dark,not found plants or algae. -BENTHIC: bottom of the lake. 25
  • 53. Types of Lake Artificial lake: Due to construction Obligotrophic lake: Low nutrition concentration Masotrphic: Moderate Nutrition Eutrophic: More amount of Nutrition : Dal Lake Dystrophic lake: Brown water with low pH and humic acid Desert salt lake: High concentration of Salts: Sambhar lake Rajasthan Volcanic lake: It occures by volcano: Japan Meromictic lake : Rich in salt
  • 54. RIVER AND STREAM ECOSYSTEM They are flowing fresh water bodies. Flowing water follows distinct “channels”. Small channels – STREAMS Large channels – RIVERS Plants and animals live in streams and rivers depend upon the movement and speed of the water.
  • 57. FRESHWATER MARSHES ECOSYSTEM It tend to be naturally fertile ecosystem. It is valuable in maintaining water tables in adjacent ecosystems. Periodic fluctuations in water levels resulting from seasonal and annual rainfall variation often accomplishes tidal like actions in terms of maintaining long range stability and fertility.
  • 58. Marine Ecosystem 70% world cover by the water and 97% of this water is available in oceans and Seas. They play key role in survival of 2,50,000 species Oceans are major sinks of CO2 and play important role in Carbon cycle, Hydrological cycle Major ocean: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic Pacific: Largest and cover 1/3 part of Earth
  • 59.  Coastal Zone: Relatively warmer, Nutrition rich shallow water with sunlight and high production  Open Sea: Deeper part of ocean and away from submerged part of Continent is called continental shelf.  Euphotic zone: Received Enough light  Bathyal Zone: Dim light  Abyssal Zone: 1.5 to 5 km deep dark zone. No solar energy 26
  • 60. Components of marine ecosystem Abiotic Components: Salt concentration in open sea is usually 3.5 % while dominant ions are sodium, chloride, sulpher magnasium and calcium Biotic components: Producers: phytoplanktons : macro and micro algae, cynobacteria Consumers: Herbivorous and Carnivores and top carnivorous Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi
  • 62. Biogeochemical Cycles describe the flow of essential elementsessential elements from the environment through living organisms and back into the environment. The biogeochemical cycle is the continuous flow of elements and compounds between organisms and the earth
  • 63. Types of cycles Hydrological cycle: deal with the interchange of water with organisms and environment Gaseous cycle: Deal with inter change with gases Sedimentary cycle: Deals with SO4 and PO4 cycle and concern with the interchange of nutrition and minerals
  • 64. Elemental Cycles H, O, and C make up > 99 % of the Earth’s biomass N, Ca, K, Mg, S, and P are significant nutrients Cycling of C, O, N, P, and S are discussed in this chapter
  • 65. Concepts in Biogeo. Cycles  Reservoir - where material or mass is stored  Flux: rate of flow of material  Steady state: inflow = outflow  Dynamic state: fluxes are reservoirs are changing with time  Residence time: length of time a chemical stays in a reservoir  Feedback: positive and negative
  • 66. Hydrological cycle 1. Reservoir – oceans, air (as water vapor), groundwater, lakes and glaciers; evaporation, wind and precipitation (rain) move water from oceans to land. 2. Assimilation – plants absorb water from the ground, animals drink water or eat other organisms which are composed mostly of water. 3. Release – plants transpire, animals breathe and expel liquid wastes.
  • 67. Steps Evaporation and transpiration Condensation and formation of cloud: Rising air current all the vapour up into the atmosphere cool  formation of cloud cloud is made up of droplet of water Precipitation: Snow or rain fall Run off and collection of under ground water Infiltration and percolation
  • 69. Human Impact Pollution of water Reduces the vegetation cover increases the surface ran off decreases the percolation Global warming Heavy deforestation reduces the transpiration loss of water through plants and trees
  • 70. Carbon cycle Earth atmosphere contains 0.03% of CO2 CO2 is the basic source of carbon and constitutes of all organic material It found in caves ands mines and also evolves from volcanoes
  • 71. Reservoirs of Carbon Carbon is found in all four spheres Biosphere - organic matter Atmosphere - CO2, CH4 Hydrosphere - H2CO3 ,HCO3 - , CO3 = Lithosphere - CaCO3 , coal, oil, and gas Processes: photosynthesis, formation of sediments, weathering, combustion, plate tectonics Decay of organic material
  • 72. Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle (carbon is required for building organic compounds) 1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as CO2), fossil fuels (oil, coal), durable organic materials (for example: cellulose). 2. Assimilation – plants use CO2 in photosynthesis; animals consume plants. 3. Release – plants and animals release CO2 through respiration and decomposition; CO2 is released as wood and fossil fuels are burned.
  • 74. Human Interference Human-induced processes Extraction and combustion of fossil fuels (speeds up the medium-term cycling) Cement manufacturing Deforestation (biomass burning) All of these processes release CO2 into the atmosphere and affect the natural cycling of carbon
  • 75. Nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is an essential constituent of animals and plants. Green plant combined with Nitrogen and carbohydrates to make proteins and Nucleic acid 78 % Not directly used most form of life Taken by Process called nitrogen fixation
  • 76. Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle (Nitrogen is required for the manufacture of amino acids and nucleic acids) 1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as N2); soil (as NH4 + or ammonium, NH3 or ammonia, N02 - or nitrite, N03 - or nitrate
  • 77. Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle 2. Assimilation – plants absorb nitrogen as either NH4 + or as N03 - , animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants and other animals. The stages in the assimilation of nitrogen are as follows:
  • 79. Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen Fixation: N2 to NH4 + by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (prokaryotes in the soil and root nodules), N2 to N03 - by lightning and UV radiation. 1. Biological : Nitrogen fixing bacteria 2. Industrial fixation: fertilizer 3. Electrification( N2 + O2-- Nitrogen Oxide Amonification: Amino acid and urea- Ammonia
  • 80. Nitrification: 1. Nitrogen fixation Combination of Nitrogen with other element 2. Ammonification Organic Nitrogen- NH3 3. Nitrification and denitrification Ammonia(NH3)- ----- Nitrite forming bacteria(Nitromonas)----- Nitrite(NO2) Nitrite(NO2)--------Nitrobacter--------------- Nitrate Nitrate(NO3)--------Denitrification(Pseudomonas)--- Nitrogen
  • 81. Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle 3. Release – Denitrifying bacteria convert N03 - back to N2 (denitrification); detrivorous bacteria convert organic compounds back to NH4 + (ammonification); animals excrete NH4 + (or NH3) urea, or uric acid.
  • 83. 30
  • 84. Human Impact Harvesting of timber Automobile and industrial exhaust Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. NO2 + OH· → HNO3 Eutrophication
  • 85. Oxygen Cycle Essential for aerobic life Closely linked to carbon cycle Very large reservoir (21% of gas in atm.), not susceptible to human interference Also, not a greenhouse gas Reservoirs: atmosphere, surface organic material (biosphere), and buried organic matter (lithosphere)
  • 86. Oxygen Cycle Processes Photosynthesis/ respiration: short-term cycle; balanced on land; excess O2 in ocean -phytoplanktons Mineral oxidation, weathering, burial - removes O2 from atmosphere Combustion or weathering of organic matter - removes O2 from atmosphere Atmosphere => marine biota => sediments => rocks => atmosphere (fig )
  • 89. Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle (Phosphorus is required for the manufacture of ATP and all nucleic acids) 1. Reservoir – erosion transfers phosphorus to water and soil; sediments and rocks that accumulate on ocean floors return to the surface as a result of uplifting by geological processes 2. Assimilation – plants absorb inorganic PO4 3- (phosphate)from soils; animals obtain organic phosphorus when they plants and other animals 3. Release – plants and animals release phosphorus when they decompose; animals excrete phosphorus in their waste products
  • 90. Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle 1. Reservoir – erosion transfers phosphorus to water and soil; sediments and rocks that accumulate on ocean floors return to the surface as a result of uplifting by geological processes 2. Assimilation – plants absorb inorganic PO4 3- (phosphate)from soils; animals obtain organic phosphorus when they plants and other animals 3. Release – plants and animals release phosphorus when they decompose; animals excrete phosphorus in their waste products 33
  • 91. Biogeochemical cycles of other minerals, such as calcium and magnesium, are similar to the phosphorus cycle.
  • 92. References/Sources 1. https://lh5.ggpht.com/H2dq WsdPCrPGpOOsCS1f79kJCCu2IcRa4rgIFVyMYv0ed0xKM 2. https://lh4.ggpht.com/lal2jVY5nTqn-GYyGkNhOhEqbBwunhrQBzG68xJAs5pDe_1aIMv 3. https://lh4.ggpht.com/8bjS8iqi4zzR-ztiMXz2hgjGOGGUS8AMGN1tgpWCEYIx2QUMs8 4. https://lh3.ggpht.com/H1N_Kb3iEM3D9-Picz9yIF7BNGfYzxsDIBVvJe2r4HPZ-B60Qw_ 5. https://lh4.ggpht.com/ZoYBuSR4OAetsf9Na4mwRp7sbnW2jAb3gQItbnuIQWfW6EWSU 6. https://lh4.ggpht.com/QouMVLtdYF9J5Xrz8wCmv-e7_OTGgdRAK1BBTmi0F1FrzGl4If 7. https://lh4.ggpht.com/eylCTs29meic1tKd8Ucy58-zmedwIWxjhT7oIF3M2aifdMbqC9vRX 8. https://lh6.ggpht.com/uSxc2sdAeDFVfeSje2xwLBqm89do_hoosxY9p6OhsLxPchW52V 9. https://lh4.ggpht.com/pW3IYpfQP5boJp9RH5lOAwYYBAcoaXziNwo9to2ZIOK5dsRGfh 10.https://lh4.ggpht.com/-qDNe-rS_wlb_uMkQr_8iSF6OSYB8Dgqa4zBtQUR1Hla_z1ebpa
  • 93. 11. https://lh3.ggpht.com/pMRtqE8hnDqCMIuuE5R4VTIDAT9Yj_KddkX3kQgILLzmIv 12. https://lh4.ggpht.com/NpHetwkBTgIptqOSIz43iUV0-xCiGbcwudy1iXPj_QrVMiAK 13. https://lh3.ggpht.com/jB0b-LrnXVA4T7qCMzAAWRbC4bpYxpGEf3csySGZ5wnKC 14. https://lh3.ggpht.com/hN2v5TWrNrJmTDBGzZ4FBhHMOEuZRJuMUivQkN8zDccT 15. https://lh4.ggpht.com/qAhs9XnefWApsz4w_0PvfaIJNQFzoAfL3dfrNduqvl1nCsfD 16. https://lh5.ggpht.com/2HNzKyG5_cw2gyRK2gks4jDoQO0VfQp6K1Mhd_g7zQEB 17. https://lh6.ggpht.com/KxV3xbr3kiMOe4oqrwtkovN1nFd9aoqJG0-MEU1Ay9hFnT 18. https://lh5.ggpht.com/t4p2rm66kwhsaAy7ZnHQPsKLSftOMoEGzgn8iv4Fy31DrB 19. https://lh4.ggpht.com/QOn_1o9GvgE_jWbKWnHicd6gdLBGrPATtABO8oSpm3a_
  • 94. 20. https://lh5.ggpht.com/JOghxjEzJ4rEZk4eI_rgp-gMG5KP_T2NqYADBpxayfGow1TW 21. https://lh4.ggpht.com/ANB3fOJea4GnjqpFE2NEG-LG095W-k9wLKbIS0F2CMlqM 22. https://lh3.ggpht.com/6BVS2KMpIbSSy9SwNslKg4VI1T5ZJp0vzx8pouenNzdIf-vxP 23. https://lh4.ggpht.com/O0Tef7MPahcV4Wq4lbkho2rnafNZ9lFX0HmET_iYAo nh8yHrJ2_6_RZtmVKEVit0dj18K6Y=s88 24. https://lh6.ggpht.com/9N_YMc2xBXTH3LhJgm47- RZ1Tmcj9dYgpbdlhcwiWehNedm3InWx9QZcwGDpsgwWsuYurFk=s109 25. https://lh4.ggpht.com/kwDP_QNbM13TnEUWvVtNmDs9d5Py5RW4WlpoF ptNJ8_yaKIA-spRAX_F495qkBWplH-9eSs=s131 26. https://lh4.ggpht.com/5qUlTUGvnKp24MwkwcGiElzL0MtSCUQQl00UqorLlT NjcKShsdk-NwwgAgJKasC5rr_P4Q=s119 27. https://lh5.ggpht.com/YcuXul7f8TVY5HwXoK0lGIFLDDVFKsFukYyFh2OicfgO D0N1EdCpelLhO9oFsf-DYWJQR40=s112 28. https://lh4.ggpht.com/MF0yJQBypOTf-LwfF- WjZANZ1OOJmn0E5gOtfwD7l7CWeD-yIHlBg96spbSIEn5YDzsyyw=s85
  • 95. 29. https://lh6.ggpht.com/XveKC4eCf-izIRSCczOsWM3WrB-dAQ4XBeJ- srEW_1NH1AHfa1h2zMPut6dsAcOAa9oym44=s129 30. https://lh3.ggpht.com/6uGiBEBa2VCvsUVoeh7mcjfhmE_uvvAAF5PulQbiqi 2VHMa6LBlyVE70wbTHbJfXUtHHVY4=s85 31. https://lh4.ggpht.com/RlQIuwaG3OdM4VoIQiq4BW8URhkwcrf7Tyx3Sp7v V1e258isYr_RAQYQJl5EsXObaHa3xA=s85 32. https://lh5.ggpht.com/inUdRc- SxFJd74wYMrXQ_qfQuphz3Vv0zciYKQQLXyhhxidsFybgBTb9lo97Tm27UTO 6HQ=s97 33. https://lh4.ggpht.com/OuvgkVuf6hIxtMC8KZ1aiJmiSscQ3MfjqPR0BHrhNk jLNzt9wE_RNXsLPraJtHPm32kDS1U=s97
  • 96. Book/Web Resources • Environment & Ecology by Dr Gourkrishna Dasmohapatra