Remediation technologies for saline soils: a case study of Mexico

Remediation technologies for saline soils: A case study of Mexico
WRJAS
Remediation technologies for saline soils: a case study
of Mexico
Nallely Trejo González1
, Judith Prieto Méndez2*
, Francisco Prieto García1
, Otilio A. Acevedo
Sandoval2
, Yolanda Marmolejo Santillán1
1
Área Académica de Química,
2
Área Académica de Agronomía, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo.
Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo Km 4.5, C. P. 42076, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, México.
Through a literature review, the problems that arise with soil salinization in arid and semiarid
areas mainly and especially the case of Mexico were analyzed. The origin is assessed, the
principles for the recovery of salinized soil, biremediación and current technologies. Also some
future projections for these processes are shown. Finally it is concluded that the issue of soil
bioremediation, is relatively recent and several of the technologies applied are still in test mode
since its effectiveness in many cases has to do with the soil and climatic conditions of the
region where used. Technologies can be varied, as used it refers to the application of washes
the floor and the supply of gypsum as amended. Something a little more recent but equally
longer used is the application of compost as a means to reclaim saline soil. Most remediation
technologies and companies dedicated to providing these services are dedicated almost
exclusively to treat soils that have been contaminated by hydrocarbons. In Mexico there are 234
companies dedicated to offering services land reclamation.
Keyword: Salinization, sodic soils, bioremediation, bioremediation technologies
INTRODUCTION
Currently, one of the problems that restricts agricultural
activities, is the salinity of the soil, this problem occurs in
large or small tracts of land, and the consequence of this
is the decrease of the productive capacity of soils,
reflected in crop yields, but equally on ecological effects
on the environment. This happens primarily in areas
where surface evaporation and absorption of water by
plants exceed the level of precipitation, which will cause
an upward movement of the salts that are dissolved in
the groundwater, and moving towards the soil surface,
often affecting the structural and chemical conditions
thereof (Liang et al., 2005).
An example of soil degradation is salinity, as are changes
in the physical and chemical behavior. Salinization is a
complex process, variable in time and space, is why the
pattern of variability salt content changes according to the
season, increasing its concentration in the dry season,
which decreases the infiltration (Ruíz et al., 2007).
According to the concentration of salts in the soil
properties with negative effects for crops, according to
this there are two scenarios depending on the
predominant cation (Ca
2+
or Na
+
) originate. When
dominates the Ca
2+
and soluble salts abundantly found in
the ground, then the profile has very little differentiated,
but has a stable structure, then responsible for low
productivity is high osmotic pressure of the soil solution.
*Corresponding author: Judith Prieto Méndez, 2Área
Académica de Agronomía, Universidad Autónoma del
Estado de Hidalgo. Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo Km
4.5, C. P. 42076, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo,
México. Email: jud_29200@yahoo.com.mx
World Research Journal of Agricultural Sciences
Vol. 3(1), pp. 060-068, June, 2016. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 2326-7266x
Review

Trejo et al. 060
This type of soil is called saline soils or halomorfos, these
soils are representative of Solonchak which present at
some time during a high concentration of soluble salts.
These soils are widely distributed in arid and semiarid
zones and in coastal regions.
Conversely, when the cation is predominant Na
+
there is
a sparsity of clays, leading to loss of soil structure, while
the hydrolysis of the clays will be leading to alkalization of
the profile soil and they will be causing an accelerated
mineral modification, which from the morphological point
of view will be reflected in a distinct profile. This type of
soil is called sodic soils or alkaline and belong to the
class of Solonetz, which have a high rate of sodium ions
and a clay horizon (Guerrero et al., 2007).
All soils contain salts but some of these become a
problem when they are concentrated in the root zone of
crops. This results in an increase in the osmotic pressure
in soil water, which brings negative effects on plant
development (Sánchez et Arguello, 2006; Michel et al.,
2016).
Origin of the soil salinity
Currently, the most serious complications that agriculture
faces are due to salinization and soil sodification. The
causes of this disease are mainly attributed to increased
desertification on the planet, in nearby areas, sea water
use for irrigation and the introduction of irrigation systems
that do not have good drainage. All these processes
induce a decline in the development and production of
crops. In plants, the normal range of salinity is mainly
determined by the composition and not by the
concentration of salts (López et al., 2008).
Globally, around 831 million hectares are affected by
salts, of these 397 million (48%) have problems of salinity
and 34 million (4.1%) sodicity problems (FAO, 2000). In
Mexico salinization it is estimated to affect approximately
3.2% of the country, appearing significantly in the states
of Sonora, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi,
Chiapas, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca, Veracruz and Zacatecas
(SEMARNAT, 2009) (see Figure 1) 10 (SEMARNAT,
2003), in those regions of the country the problem of
salinity in irrigated areas of arid areas is associated,
because the water is rich in salts and moreover there is
no proper management of soil and water, It is resulting in
soil degradation that affects the decrease in productivity
and quality of crops (Bayuelo et al., 2003).
In the case of Mexico, salinity forward uninterruptedly in
most irrigation districts. The area affected by this issue is
600 thousand hectares, and 300,000 show poor
performance or are already abandoned, resulting in a
significant drop in the economy of farmers (Bayuelo et al.,
2003).
Salinization can have two, natural or anthropogenic
origins. In Mexico, natural salinization is mainly
associated with the climatic conditions of aridity and the
existence of original materials rich in salts. The salts in
the soil are created naturally, the dissolution of the parent
material, and most cases are related to the transport of
substances with streams of water are stored in
depressions and when the water evaporates scabs form
salinas. Regularly soils occupy the salts that are in
surface groundwater, which can be kept in any proportion
dissolved salts (Manzano et al., 2014). This occurs
mainly in depressions and lowlands.
Figure 1. Soil degradation in Mexico (SEMARNAT, 2003).
When it comes to arid regions, salts may climb capillary
action in these areas, the wind plays an important role
since many drags suspended particles (carbonates,
sulphates, chlorides) applied in soils. Groundwaters
which are used for irrigation contain soluble salts such as
sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sulphates and
chlorides that have dissolved from the rocks and
minerals. An important factor to consider is the
evapotranspiration of irrigation water, which causes soil
deposited in huge amounts of salts, if there is no proper
drainage and leaching. This is called salinization by
irrigation (Sharma et Minhas, 2005). According to the
World Health Organization (OMSS) of the 230 million
hectares are under irrigation, 45 million are affected by
salinity. It is estimated that in one year almost 1.5 million
hectares of irrigated land are lost, resulting in a decline
about 11 billion dollars in agricultural production
(Bandera, 2004).
When speaking of anthropogenic origin salinity is due to
agricultural and livestock activities because irrigation has
led to severe salinization (Pérez et al., 2016). The causes
can be: the misuse of irrigation water without control,
lowering water tables (saltwater intrusion), mobilization of
the land, the presence of rock salt on the ground, among
others. All this has contributed to the contamination of
soil and equally to an accumulation of salts in the soil. On
the other hand, it is the use of fertilizer in huge quantity,
contributing to pollute aquifers and therefore later in
Type degradation
Decreased fertility
Eutrophication
Pollution
Salinization /Alkalinization
Source: SEMARNAT, 2003.
Evaluation of soil degradation
caused by man. Scale 1: 250 000

World Res. J. Agric. Sci. 061
irrigation water. Similarly, industrial activities, causing
damage in areas near their influence (Celeste et al.,
2012).
In the world, the areas affected by salts and sodium are
widely distributed; in Mexico, these problems are mainly
in arid, semi-arid areas with irrigation and along the
coast. In Mexico, about 60% of the land in the territory
are considered arid or semi-arid areas, which correspond
to the center and north of the country (Hoffman et
Shannon, 2007).
There is a soil classification system which was proposed
by the IUSS in 2007, which is referred to as Solonchaks
saline soils and presenting an eminent Solonetz salt
content. The Solonchak, are in regions where the salt is
stored, (coastal lagoons, lake beds, lower parts of
valleys, plains of dry areas) and contain a high salt
content either all or any part of the floor. In this type of
grassland soil and other plants that if tolerate excess salt
develop. For agricultural use and has limited its use to
salt-tolerant crops.
Solonetz have high concentrations of salts and have the
characteristic of having a clayey subsurface forms hard
lumps with columns also are high in sodium. Its location
is based on regions where salts, mainly sodium is
deposited. The vegetation is sparse feature is only
grassland or scrub. Usually these soils are no longer
used for farming and recovery turns out to be difficult and
costly (IUSS, 2007).
Saline soil recovery
At present, they are very important issues related to the
recovery of affected soils and soil conservation, paying
special attention from the causes of salinization. Some
scientists have experimented with physical, biological,
and chemical methods hydrotechnical.
To remove salts from the soil, one of the most common
practices is washing, but prior to this activity should know
the concentration and composition of salts in the soil.
Washing is to start with a downward flow of water drag
salts can be performed vertically and / or horizontally. In
saline-sodic soils should be frequent, in saline soils
washing applies only without applying chemical
enhancers. But sodic soils need to apply water whose
content is based on large amounts of calcium (Katerji et
al., 2003; Villafañe, 2011).
For practical use, most used chemical methods, which
lies, among others, in the application of sulfur (in
elemental or sulfates), which will have the function of
increasing the development of dry matter and similarly
the content of various elements in different parts of the
plant. Sulfur will lower the pH of the soil and thus Fe
2+
,
Zn
2+
, Mn
2+
and Cu
2+
cations increases when the pH no
longer available for the plant are released (López et al.,
2015).
Another commonly used method is the application of
agricultural gypsum or calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4 •
2H2O), which will improve soil structure, drainage and
increase usable water reserves in the soil. By
incorporating calcium, it helps organic matter and water-
soluble polymers to bind to clays (Luo et al., 2015).
The disadvantage of these methods is that their
application in large areas is expensive, the amounts used
and application technology application.
In some cases it has opted for the use of some forage
crops to improve saline and sodic soils, because these
crops have the ability to thrive under conditions of salinity
and remove sodium from the soil, this represents an
economic and sustainable alternative since one hand is
decreasing salinity and secondly, these crops can be
harvested as crops wide coverage in large areas of soil,
reduce erosion problems and forage is produced to feed
livestock (Ruíz et al., 2007).
Bioremediation
The concept of bioremediation has been used to
represent the diversity of systems that manipulate living
organisms (plants, fungi, bacteria, etc.) organisms in
order to move, degrade and convert toxic organic
compounds into less toxic products.
To carry out bioremediation can be done using native to
the area or foreign organisms, it can be performed on or
without oxygen (anaerobic) presence of oxygen (aerobic).
These systems bioremediation can be carried out on the
site without the need for excavation (in situ), or otherwise
making an excavation to treat Site (on site) or to do it
outside (ex situ) (Escalante et al., 2010). So far
bioremediation has been done successfully in soils,
sludges and contaminated with total petroleum
hydrocarbons (TPH), solvents, explosives, chlorophenols,
pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
(Semple et al., 2001) sediments. In Mexico, some have
begun work site characterization affected by oil, oil
specifically in areas such as Tabasco and Veracruz (Loya
del Angel, 2013).
Bioremediation technologies
It is considered that the use of bioremediation
technologies is new compared to other methods and
have certain advantages over the physico-chemical
usually used, for example methods: 1) is effective

Trejo et al. 062
Table 1. Common technologies bioremediation
TECNOLOGY DESCRIPTION Appointment
Bioestimulation It involves the addition of oxygen and / or nutrients
to the contaminated soil in order to stimulate activity
of indigenous microorganisms and thus
biodegradation of contaminants.
Volke et Velazco, 2003
Bioaumentationn It is the addition of live microorganisms having the
ability to degrade the pollutant in question and thus
promote biodegradation or biotransformation.
Roberts et al., 1998
Landfarming The contaminated soil is mixed with bulking agents
and nutrients, and stir regularly to promote aeration.
During landfarming, contaminated soil is mixed with
clean soil.
Bioventing It is to stimulate aerobic biodegradation of a
contaminant by supplying air into the contaminated
site.
Phytoremediation It is a process that uses plants to remove, transfer,
stabilize, concentrate and/or destroy contaminants
in soil or sediment.
Bioreactors It is the most suitable technology for cases where
the potential dangers of discharges and emissions
are serious. It allows controlled and efficient
combination of chemical, physical and biological
processes, which improve and accelerate
biodegradation.
Biodegradation
solid phase
This technology generally is carried out ex situ,
including composting, static piles and long piles.
technologically, 2) are safe technologies that pose a
minimal risk to health, 3) and 4 are simple technologies
and easy application) installation and operation with low
cost. In general, one can say that the use of a technology
of bioremediation in particular, in addition to site-specific
factors and the physicochemical properties of the
contaminant, availability of the proven reliability or
projected, of its state of development (depends
laboratory, pilot scale or large scale) and cost (Loya del
Angel, 2013).
Bioremediation has been well received and a significant
increase in the market mainly because compared to the
physico-chemical methods, there may be a reduction in
costs between 65 and 80%. On several occasions, costs
determine the acceptance of bioremediation, costs of
biological systems to be used must have a lower cost
compared to physical and chemical treatments, which
represent a viable alternative for equal treatment site and
polluting way. Currently most bioremediation
technologies are competitive in terms of cost and
efficiency of a contaminated site (Semple et al., 2001).
Table 1 most common technologies are shown
bioremediation:
Bioremediation technologies in Mexico
Mexico currently exist in a lot of companies offering
remediation services for contaminated sites. In the year
1997 began in Mexico City with the mandatory use of the
Single Environmental License (LAU) to companies
running tasks soil remediation, in order to establish
control over the technologies offered and be both of their
existing possibilities of triumph (Robert et al., 1998; Volke
et Velazco, 2002; Mata et al., 2014). Since January 4,
1999 the LAU is issued by the federal government
through SEMARNAT in the states of Aguascalientes,
Baja California, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Cd. De Mexico,
Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Nuevo Leon, Puebla,
Querétaro , San Luis Potosi, Sonora, Tamaulipas,
Tlaxcala and Veracruz; in the other states and is
centralized license management.
The list of companies authorized to provide service
remediation of contaminated soils and similar materials
contaminated soil in the updated April 30, 2014 version,
provided by the Secretariat of Environment and Natural
Resources (SEMARNAT) and consulted Hence one can
say that companies offer technologies to recover soils
that have been contaminated by organic compounds,
being the most frequently HTP, PAHs, oil sludge, drilling
mud and drill cuttings. There are currently 234 authorized
companies, none of which provides for the recovery of
contaminated metals (SEMARNAT, 2002) soil.
According to the list of authorized companies, biological
technologies (bioremediation) are used to recover are

Figure 2. Soil remediation technologies used in Mexico by
authorized companies
contaminated by different types of soil contaminants, the
most used and landfarming composting. Another
important part is constituted by soil washing, chemical
oxidation and physical separation (Figure 2).
Even certain deficiencies are estimated in the knowledge
and use of bioremediation technologies by companies,
because several of these companies do not have well-
trained in the area of biotechnology and / or microbiology
personnel, mainly because for these works successfully
be imported formulations (concentrates bacterial or
enzymatic, active and nutrient mixtures tense agents,
among others) to sell in Mexico. And moreover these
products do not carry information about its content and
often has not demonstrated the efficacy of these products
in the soil and climate of Mexico (Setia et al., 2011).
The service offered by some companies is full
bioremediation, which include the excavation of
contaminated soil, providing products and their
application. Most companies have qualified and trained to
perform work bioremediation staff (She et al., 2014).
Furthermore it was tested using different technologies,
mainly establishing applying three treatments that may be
alternative to retrieve soils are: 1. Biofertilzer, 2.
Biopolymers, 3. Electromagnetism (Zúñiga et al., 2011).
Treatment Biofertilzer
To control salinity have been used various
microorganisms are beneficial because they are
responsible for degrading organic contaminants or to
lessen the toxic level of inorganic contaminants from the
soil, making this through natural biological activity and by
reactions that are part of the metabolic process (Zúñiga
et al., 2011)
Conventional treatment
It is based on the application of plaster and to reduce
sulfur levels in soil salinity, with these applications is
achieved increase the permeability of the soil, getting
maximize the percentage of medium pore and decreasing
the micropores. After this, with abundant and frequent
waterings salts washed. Previously these technologies
were widely used but its use has been minimized due to
increased costs of sulfur (Volke et Velazco, 2002).
Treating biopolymers
Saline and saline sodic soils generally lack structure, so
that this technology has the advantage of re-forming and
stabilizing aggregates in the soil structure, with this
infiltration is improved and when the wash is applied
helps facilitate the salts leached present. The products
used have dual function because they serve as
stabilizers fertilizer and soil structure (Velazco, 2004).
Treatment of electromagnetism
For this treatment it is necessary to use magnetic fields to
accelerate the dynamic action of beneficial
microorganisms with this process-biological chemical on
saline soil while recovery takes time is reduced and the
efficiency improvement is increased through biological
activity (Hernández et al., 2010). To carry out this
process has designed a computer that allows you to
perform electromagnetic stimulation.
At the end of this work a table where technologies that
have already been used and reported by other authors
who were part of the literature review for the realization of
this work are set attached.
CONCLUSIONS
The theme of bioremediation is relatively recent and
several of the technologies applied are still in test mode
since its effectiveness in many cases has to do with the
soil and climatic conditions of the region where they are
used, the technologies used can be very varied, and they
have been cited major in the review presented above. As
Centrifugation
Bioremediation
Chemical oxidation
Thermal desorption
Vapor Extraction
Physical separation
Washing

Trejo et al. 064
Annexes
COMPANY (Reference) PLACE TECNOLOGY
Hernández Rodríguez, Ojeda Barrios,
López Díaz, and Arras Vota, 2010)
Chihuahua,
Mexico
Organic fertilizers
Castro Piña et al., 2011 Coahuila,
Mexico
Halophilic microorganisms
Kohler, Caravaca, and Roldán, 2010 Murcia, Spain Arbuscular mycorrhizal (Glomus mosseae)
and promoting rhizobacteria plant
growth (Pseudomonas Mendoza)
Li-ping et al., 2015 China Plaster and cow manure
Serrano Sánchez, Ortíz Arellano,
Dimas López, and Berúmen Padilla,
2002
Comarca
Lagunera,
Mexico
Soil washing and bovine manure
Ruíz Cerda et al., 2007 Mérida,
Mexico
Cultivation of forage grasses (Sudan
grass, Italian ryegrass or ryegrass and
bermudagrass)
Thatoi, Das, Mishra, Rath, and Das,
2014
Odisha, India Bacterium chromate reductase
L. and Velasco Trejo, 2003 Mexico Compost
Kumar, Lakshmi, and Khanna, 2008 India Bacteria (Ochrobactrum sp., Arthrobacter
sp., and Burkholderia sp.
Hernández Araujo, 2011 Madrid, Spain organic material: compost,
vermicompost, green manure (Duckweed
Lemna spp.
Moheimani, Webb, and Borowitzka,
2012
Australia Algae
Bouwer and Zehnder, 1993 USA microbial metabolism (microorganisms)
Betancur-Galvis, Alvarez-Bernal,
Ramos-Valdivia, and Dendooven,
2006
Méxio, D. F. Phenanthrene, anthracene and BaP (with
and without biosolids)
X. Chen et al., 2015 China Compost
Barbosa, Tandlich, and Burgess,
2007
África Biofilters, fluidized bed reactors, trickle
bed bioreactors, bioscrubbers,
bioreactors two-phase partition,
membrane bioreactors and activated
sludge.
Balderas León and Sánchez Yánez,
2015
La Paz, Bolivia Bioremediation double and sequential
biostimulation and subsequent
Phytoremediation with Sorghum vulgare
and Bacillus cereus or plant growth
promoting bacteria
Vidya Lakshmi, Kumar, and Khanna,
2008
India Aerobic consortiums (Pseudomonas
fluorescence, Brucella melitensis, Bacillus
subtilis, Bacillus cereus Klebsiella species,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia
marcescens)
Zhao, Li, Wang, Pang, and Li, 2016 China Straw buried

Annex Cont.
Sánchez Leal and Arguello Arias,
2006
Colombia Halophilic bacteria
Pérez, Céspedes, and Nuñez, 2008 República
Dominicana
Organic amendments
Wong, Dalal, and Greene, 2009 Australia Gypsum and organic matter
Lu et al., 2015 China Poultry manure
Chen, Kang, Wan, Chu, and Li, 2015 China Improved irrigation method
Raeesossadati, Ahmadzadeh,
McHenry, and Moheimani, 2014
Australia Microalgae and cyanobacteria in
photobioreactors
Dagar, Minhas, and Kumar, 2011 India Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic
plants
Zhang, Zai, Wu, Qin, and Zhang,
2014
China Arbuscular mycorrhizal (Glomus mosseae)
and phosphate solubilizing fungus
(Mortierella sp.)
Makoi and Verplancke, 2010 África Gypsum
Celis, Sandoval, Martínez, and
Quezada, 2013
Chile Sewage sludge, extracted gypsum,
synthetic gypsum
Xun, Xie, Liu, and Guo, 2015 China Promoting plant growth bacteria (PGPR)
and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (HMA)
Lakhdar et al., 2009 Italia Compost
Petenello Cristina, 2012 Argentina plant species (Spartina argentinensis,
Paspalum atratum, Paspalum guenoarum
and Melilotus albus)
used refers to the application of washes the floor and the
supply of gypsum as amended. Something a little more
recent but equally longer used is the application of
compost as a means to reclaim saline soil.
Most remediation technologies and companies dedicated
to providing these services, are dedicated almost
exclusively to treat soils that have been contaminated by
hydrocarbons.
In Mexico there are 234 companies dedicated to offering
services land reclamation in the case of the State of
Hidalgo there are only two, one located in Progreso de
Obregon and the other in Pachuca, both offer services to
recover hydrocarbon contaminated soils.
Projections
The subject is certainly of interest since are increasingly
degraded soils due to salinity, now it's one of the
problems that agriculture faces, could be considered as
minor but the soil is the basis for production agricultural
and if you care to do something to recover in the future is
not paid will jeopardize food security.
That is why it is important to implement technologies to
recover it, in case the state of Hidalgo several cases
occur primarily in irrigated areas. It is of interest to create
and evaluate some systems allow soil recovery being
affected by salinity problems.
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Accepted 27 June, 2016.
Citation: Trejo GN, Prieto MJ, Acevedo SOA, Marmolejo
SY (2016). Remediation technologies for saline soils: A
case study of Mexico. World Research Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 3(1): 060-068.
Copyright: © 2016 Trejo et al. This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.

Remediation technologies for saline soils: a case study of Mexico

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