Student and teacher engagement

American Secondary Education 41(3) Fall 2013
50
Where Student, Teacher, and Content
Meet: Student Engagement in the
Secondary School Classroom
Authors
Michael J. Corso, Ph.D., is the Chief Academic Officer for the Quaglia
Institute for Student Aspirations in Portland, Maine.
Matthew J. Bundick, Ph.D, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Counseling, Psychology, and Special Education at Duquesne University in
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.
Russell J. Quaglia, Ed.D., is the President and Founder of the Quaglia Insti-
tute for Student Aspirations in Portland, Maine.
Dawn E. Haywood is the Chief Executive and Founder of the Student En-
gagement Trust in London, England.
Abstract
The degree to which students think, feel, and act engaged in school plays a
vital role in their chances for academic and life success, yet levels of student
engagement remain low. In this article, we focus specifically on how engage-
ment works in the classroom, namely as a function of the interactions between
students, teachers, and the class content. We propose a model in which stu-
dent engagement in the classroom can be understood as emanating from the
relationships between students and teachers; teacher levels of content and
pedagogical expertise; and the degree to which students see the class content
as relevant to their current interests, future goals, and identities.
A wealth of research supports the notion that student engagement leads
to a variety of desirable academic and life outcomes (National Research
Council and Institute of Medicine, 2004). The more students are engaged
in their schoolwork, the more likely they are to perform well academically,
obtaining higher grades in their classes and higher scores on standardized

51
tests. Student engagement has been directly linked to reduced high school
dropout rates. Students who are more engaged in school are more likely to
attend, and eventually graduate from, college. Some scholars have further
suggested that promoting engagement can help shrink achievement gaps
(Lee & Shute, 2009).
Unfortunately, research into student engagement and motivation reveals
that up to 60% of high school students are “chronically disengaged” (Klem
& Connell, 2004). In a large-scale national survey of American middle and
high school students, the Quaglia Institute for Aspirations (2013) found that
more than half of high school students are bored at school, and less than half
enjoy being there. According to the ��National Research Council and Insti-
tute of Medicine (2004), “Dropping out of high school is for many students
the last step in a long process through which students become disengaged
from school” (p. 24). Dropping out is highly likely to have serious negative
long-term consequences, such as difficulty finding employment and reduced
quality of life. According to the U.S. Department of Education, in October
2009 approximately three million 16- to 24-year-olds were not enrolled in
high school, nor had they earned a high school diploma or alternative cre-
dential (Chapman, Laird, Ifill, & KewalRamani, 2011). Moreover, levels of
disengagement typically increase as students progress through school; the
longer students are in school, the less engaged they are (Eccles, Wigfield, &
Schiefele, 1998).
Greater engagement in school has also been linked to various indicators
of individual well-being. Students who are engaged behaviorally, cogni-
tively, and/or emotionally in school are more likely to feel better about them-
selves, be satisfied with their lives, and enjoy higher work quality later in life
(Gallup, 2013). Moreover, they are less likely to engage in delinquency,
substance abuse, and risky sexual behavior (Antaramian, Huebner, Hills, &
Valois, 2010; O’Farrell & Morrison, 2003).
Taken together, there is much evidence for the individual benefits of
student engagement, and these benefits extend to teachers as well. When a
classroom is filled with students who are paying attention, focused, partici-
pating, mentally stimulated, and having fun, the teacher is much more likely
to enjoy being there and to feel more invested, and is less likely to experi-
ence burnout (Covell, McNeil, & Howe, 2009). Additionally, when engage-
ment is high and disciplinary issues are minimal, more of the teacher’s time
and effort can be spent on promoting learning, and less on managing distrac-
tions. Student engagement has benefits not only for the individual students
and teachers, but the entire learning environment.
What We Mean by Student Engagement
The term engagement in reference to schooling has been defined in many
different, and sometimes inconsistent, ways. Certain studies have focused
Corso, Bundick, Quaglia, Haywood Where Student, Teacher, and Content Meet

52
strictly on the outward signs of engagement, such as being alert and com-
pleting assignments, while others have primarily addressed inner aspects of
engagement, such as being curious and passionate. We believe the term
student engagement is best understood in a way that recognizes students’
internal thoughts and beliefs about being engaged, as well as their external
experiences with the various aspects of school life (e.g., academic classes,
cocurricular activities, socializing).
The emerging consensus among scholars in the field is that engagement
comprises three distinct but interrelated “modes”: engaged in thought, en-
gaged in feeling, and engaged in action (see Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris,
2004).
1. Engaged in thought involves a psychological investment in learning
and mastery of academic material, as well as the desire for challenge.
Planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s thinking, along with self-
control, are indications that one is engaged in thought.
2. Engaged in feeling refers to students’ emotions regarding their
relationships with others in the school environment (e.g., teachers,
peers) and the general sense of belonging in school that comes from
such relationships. Engaged in feeling also refers to students’ sense
of connectedness to, interest in, and passion for academic content.
This is often accompanied by a strong sense of confidence regarding
academic abilities.
3. Engaged in action refers to the various activities and involvements
in school that are directed toward learning and academic tasks.
Signs of active engagement include attending and contributing to
class, following school rules, completing assignments, studying, and
concentrating on academic tasks.
Why Examine Student Engagement at the Classroom Level?
To date, most studies of engagement have addressed how students think,
feel, and act at school in general. Many indicators of engagement, such as
the number of school-related activities in which a student participates, or
the degree to which a student feels like part of the school community, are by
definition school-wide. The various factors that determine a given student’s
degree of engagement can, however, depend on the particular school-relat-
ed activities in which he or she is engaged. For example, some students are
very active in creative arts classes, but are bored by math; for others, it may
be just the opposite.
If educators want to fully understand the variety of students’ experiences
of engagement in school, the most fruitful approach is to focus on the class-
room. Most schools separate the school day into particular academic classes
and subject areas; this means student engagement can also be separated into
different classroom-level experiences. Many aspects of student engagement
Where Student, Teacher, and Content Meet Corso, Bundick, Quaglia, Haywood

53
are specific to a particular context. Interest and investment in learning one
subject over another is one example, or a student may have a sense of con-
nectedness to a certain teacher, but not to teachers in general.
Teachers need a framework that addresses how the various components
of a typical classroom (within a student, between students and teachers, be-
tween students and academic content, and among students) promote engage-
ment. Such an understanding is useful to teachers independent of the subjects
they teach. Whatever else may engage a student in school, such as socializ-
ing or playing sports, classroom experiences make up the bulk of the day and
are where most of “the rubber” of students’ desire and need for being engaged
meets “the road” of what schools have to offer that may be engaging.
Elements of the Classroom that Impact Engagement
The degree to which a student is engaged in the classroom is the result of a
variety of factors. In any given classroom there are one or more learners, a
teacher, and the content being learned. These three elements of the classroom
environment have been referred to as the “instructional core” (City, Elmore, Fi-
arman, &Teitel, 2009). Thus, the classroom factors that have the most bearing
on a student’s engagement fall into three categories: the student within him or
herself, the student’s interactions with others (the teacher and other students),
and the student’s interaction with the academic content.
First, within the student there are personality traits (e.g., an orientation
toward learning, a sense of confidence, the ability to be self-disciplined, per-
sistence, a willingness to be challenged, sociability, conscientiousness, etc.)
irrespective of specific subject areas that may be related to engagement in the
classroom. At the same time, the characteristics that students bring with them
into the classroom, independent of subject area, teacher, and other students
in the class, will reveal themselves in reaction to the subject area, teacher,
and other students in the class. Students may be inclined to think, feel, and
act in typical ways in different settings according to their personalities, but
the degree to which they actually think, feel, and act in a given setting will
vary based on what and who they encounter in that particular setting. For ex-
ample, by personality a student may be self-confident, but may find his or her
confidence wane when asked to work in groups mixed by gender. For this
reason, to fully understand what underlies engagement, we will need to focus
our attention on the interactions of the student and environment.
Second, the student’s interactions with others involve the social elements
of the classroom. A student’s classroom engagement is likely to be influenced
by a relationship with the teacher, including whether the student feels sup-
ported, respected, and inspired by the teacher. Engagement is also affected by
relationships with the other students in the classroom i.e., whether the student
feels supported, respected, and accepted by his or her peers; as well or aca-
demically capable relative to the other students. The entire set of relationships

54
with peers and the teacher contributes more generally to a positive classroom
learning environment, one that is (a) marked by respect between teacher and
students and among students; (b) mutually supportive and team-oriented; has
minimal distractions, especially regarding disciplinary issues.
The third factor influencing engagement is academic content, the sub-
ject area and the specific topics being covered in a class. Especially when
students are further into their schooling, they will attribute different value to
each of their classes. Factors that influence a student’s sense of the impor-
tance of one class relative to another include a student’s sense of compe-
tence in a subject area (e.g., “I am a good writer”) and the present or future
relevance of the material (e.g., “I write for the school paper and plan on
having a career as a journalist”). Seeing oneself as competent in a particular
subject is likely to lead to greater confidence, interest, and engagement in
that subject; this, in turn, is likely to lead to higher levels of achievement
in that subject, which further promotes a sense of competence. Thus, a
virtuous circle of competence à confidence à interest à engagement à
achievement à competence is established. Relevance of class content is
of three types: (a) the content as connected to one’s current interests, (b) the
content as contributing to one’s future goals, (c) the content as considered
central to one’s identity.
Demographic and other external factors are associated with student
engagement and may have some impact on classroom engagement. For
example, girls have been found, for the most part, to be somewhat more
engaged than boys in school in general (Albert et al., 2005), but less so in
mathematics classes (Eccles, 1994). In another study, general engagement in
school was lower for males, ethnic groups other than White or Asian, and for
students from families with lower socioeconomic status (SES) (Yazzie-Mintz,
2010). Other external factors, such as parental support, and variables such
as class size, are also connected to student engagement.
Although these external elements play an important part in understand-
ing student engagement, focusing on the three classroom factors is more use-
ful for two reasons. First, external factors typically do not play as prominent
a role in determining student engagement at the classroom level as within-
classroom factors, (e.g., Wang & Holcombe, 2010). Second, classroom fac-
tors are accessible to educators and malleable in ways that other conditions
may not be. A classroom teacher has a great deal of control over his or her
relationship with the students, the course content itself, and how the content
is presented, yet very little or no control over the students' family relation-
ships, their gender or race, or their SES.
A New Model of Student Engagement
The classroom factors we have been discussing are part and parcel of the
three primary elements of the typical classroom: the students, the teacher,

55
and the content. The student is there (ideally) to gather, discover, process,
understand, and integrate, ultimately, to learn, the knowledge conveyed in
the course. The teacher shares, presents, guides, instructs, and/or facilitates
this knowledge to that end. Importantly, he or she needs to not only have
expertise in the content, but also have the pedagogical skills to provide that
content in a format understandable to the students. The content represents
the information that is to be shared by the teacher and learned by the stu-
dent. The individual student, the student’s interactions with the teacher (and
his or her peers), and the curricular content together with how it is delivered
by the teacher, are all key components in creating engagement.
With these elements in mind, we propose a framework for understand-
ing how they combine to enhance (or inhibit) student engagement in the
classroom, which (following from City et al.’s (2009) “instructional core”
model) we call the Student Engagement Core (SEC) model (Bundick, Corso,
Quaglia, & Haywood, in press) (see Figure 1). At the heart of the SEC model
are the interactions among the three primary elements—teacher, student,
and content—which can be graphically represented by the intersections on a
Venn diagram. There are four basic intersections: student–teacher, student–
content, teacher–content, and (at the center) student–teacher–content. We
refer to these as classroom interactions.
Figure 1. The Student Engagement Core model representing the core classroom in-
teractions between student, teacher, and content that promote student engagement.

56
Classroom Interactions
Student–Teacher (Relationship). The degree to which the student–teacher re-
lationship supports a student’s engagement rests upon the student’s sense
that the teacher is available, concerned, impartial, and respectful. There
is much research (e.g., Wentzel, 1998) and plenty of anecdotal and expe-
riential evidence to confirm the benefits of positive student–teacher rela-
tionships toward all three types of student engagement: thinking, feeling,
and acting. Students are likely to perceive their teachers as caring when
they engage in simple pedagogical practices such as offering help, being
mindful of perceptions of fairness, and taking extra time when explaining
complex subject matter (Wentzel, 1998). Additionally, when a teacher
asks his or her students “authentic questions” intended to get to know
them on a personal level, such as what happened in the previous day’s
co-curricular activities or what the students do in their spare time, the
students are more likely to feel connected to and, ultimately, engaged by
that teacher (Blumenfeld et al., 1991).
As a by-product of asking these authentic questions, teachers gather
information that enables them to make the material more relevant to stu-
dents’ everyday lives. Indeed, an example in a physics class of a skate-
boarder launching off a ramp at a certain trajectory is likely to garner
young people’s attention more readily than a nondescript ball rolling
down the ramp. Numerous other practical examples for developing these
and other means of engaging students can be found in Christenson et al.
(2008).
Student–Content (Relevance). The interaction between the student and the
content of the classroom involves each student’s implicit or explicit esti-
mation of the relevance of the content to him or her. In general, the more
students perceive the content of a class to be relevant to them person-
ally, the more likely they are to be engaged by it. We noted earlier that
there are three ways the content of a class may be relevant to students:
relevance to one’s current interests, relevance to one’s future goals, and
relevance to one’s identity or sense of self.
1. Relevance to one’s current interests involves how class content con-
nects to other classes, to events in the news and popular culture,
and to a student’s activities and interests. Relating the content of
a class to experiences and ideas familiar to students can enlarge
the sense of “significance-to-me.” This, in turn, is likely to lead to
increased incentive to engage with that content. Connections like
this may pique a student’s curiosity or grab attention in a useful, but
perhaps fleeting, manner. As such, they may not be as engaging
as “personal interests” which are more stable over time and more

57
commonly connected to one’s future goals; however, they can still
contribute to a positive experience of classroom engagement.
2. Relevance to one’s future goals involves a connection between
classroom effort and the anticipated payoff of that investment in the
future. This type of relevance typically reflects personal rather than
passing interests. Research shows this type of personal, stable rel-
evance is related to indicators of all three types of engagement (see
Wigfield & Cambria, 2010). When students incorporate the future
into their perspective of time, they are better able to connect longer-
term goals to current efforts, and thus to engagement. This type of
relevance suggests that even when particular content is not of cur-
rent interest to a student, it can be engaging because it is considered
important for other reasons (e.g., to get into college). Additionally,
although some forms of relevance may not be stable at first, they
can develop into more long-term personal interests, especially if
they form a connection with one’s developing identity.
3. Relevance to one’s identity involves how students believe the class
content reflects an aspect of their self-concept, specifically a sense
of their ability to succeed academically. Academic self-concept
varies with different subject areas; thus, students may perceive dif-
ferent levels to which class content reflects who they are and what
they are good at. The more competent students feel in a particular
subject, the more likely they are to engage in it and, in turn, be suc-
cessful in that class. In particular, when relevance to one’s identity
and relevance to one’s future goals combine, engagement is likely
to be at its highest.
Teacher–Content (Expertise). The interaction between a teacher and the
class content involves the teacher’s expertise in the subject area and in
an effective set of pedagogical skills. In this way, expertise refers broadly
to the teacher’s ability to assist students in learning about the class mate-
rial, not just to lecture about it. Numerous studies (e.g., Klem & Connell,
2004) show that higher engagement in thought, feeling, and action in the
classroom are supported by a teacher’s ability to
• deliver quality instruction;
• create a caring, structured learning environment;
• have high expectations of students;
• involve students in meaningful tasks with real-world implications;
and
• allow students to share knowledge with each other.

58
Pedagogical expertise involves having high expectations of students, in-
volving students in meaningful tasks with real-world implications, and
allowing students to share knowledge with each other. Indeed, when the
classroom provides opportunities for students to interact and collaborate
with their peers in positive and healthy ways, the adolescent need for
socializing can become leverage for engagement rather than a distraction
to the lesson that is being offered. Moreover, when teachers demonstrate
expertise in both their content area and their craft, students are more
likely to respect them. A classroom marked by mutual respect is more
likely to be engaging to students.
Student–Teacher–Content. Ultimately, the SEC model proposes that, in
classrooms where students enjoy positive relationships with the teacher,
perceive class material to be relevant, and consider the teacher an expert
in the content as well as effective in helping them learn it, student en-
gagement is highly likely. In such circumstances, students come to class
eager, prepared and ready to learn, and willing to put in the work neces-
sary to be successful in that class.
Limitations of the SEC Model
The classroom interactions outlined above represent the major forces that
act on students’ engagement in the classroom, however, they are not the
only ones. For example, the perception of support from peers is thought
to improve student engagement (e.g., Wentzel, 1998), and we have not
specifically addressed students’ interactions with one another. In addition,
some students may suffer from mental or physical disorders or challenges
(e.g., ADHD, a chronic lack of sleep, persistent health problems, drug or
alcohol abuse) that severely limit their ability to engage in class. Much of
this may fall outside of the scope or skills of a teacher to affect. In addition,
students may be more focused on their cocurricular plans, or suffering from
the proverbial “senioritis.” Any of these complications may have an impor-
tant effect on a given student’s engagement in a given class on a given day,
but they are beyond the scope of this model.
In addition, it should be noted that the directionality of effects suggested
by the SEC model, from the classroom interactions to engagement, might
also flow in the opposite direction. For example, although it seems logical
to conclude that a positive relationship with a teacher may improve stu-
dent engagement, it may also be the case that engaged students draw the
positive attention of teachers. Though there is research to suggest that cause
and effect work in the direction suggested by the model (see, e.g., Wang &
Holcombe, 2010), a bidirectionality of effects is not only possible but, to a
certain degree, likely.
Following from this limitation, it is important that future empirical re-
search is conducted to better understand the directionality of effects, and

59
more generally to validate the model overall. Though the concepts under-
lying and the hypothesized direction of effects within the SEC model are
rooted in solid research, however, the overall functioning of the model re-
quires rigorously designed studies to test them. Given the complexity and
multidimensionality of the constructs involved, such a research endeavour
would ��benefit from mixed-methods approaches that incorporate the collec-
tion of data from multiple sources (e.g., student-teacher relationships and
teacher expertise might be assessed from classroom observations in combi-
nation with teacher and student surveys). Until such studies are conducted,
the efficacy of the SEC model might be viewed as tentative, albeit theoreti-
cally sound.
Given those caveats, the SEC model is designed primarily to help ed-
ucation practitioners, and in particular teachers, see how aspects of their
teaching and classroom environments, over which they have some control,
impact their students’ engagement. While teachers can design their classes
in such a way as to encourage (or discourage) student interaction, dictat-
ing or determining that such interaction will be positive and conducive to
student engagement is difficult. Finally, sporadic disengagement, that might
be attributed to natural distractions that are a normal part of the busy and
stressful lives of a developing young person, should not discourage or divert
the efforts of a teacher whose interest is in establishing consistent patterns of
effective and engaging teaching, as well as developing positive relationships
with students.
Conclusion
Schools no longer have a corner on the from-whom-and-where-you-can-
learn-things market that once supported the engagement of most students
through innate curiosity and the desire to be successful (see Pink, 2012).
Moreover, students live in a world of near-constant stimulation. With in-
creasing mobile access to social networking, gaming, TV, music, and mov-
ies, the entire culture seems to be competing for students’ attention and
inviting their engagement. And unlike teachers and schools, those who
make a sizable profit from children’s rapt attention can devote seemingly
limitless resources to obtain it.
Though we present our ideas and model at the conceptual level, the SEC
model has important implications for practice. When teachers strive to build
better relationships with their students, enhance the relevance of the course
content, and focus on developing their content and pedagogical expertise,
their students are more likely to be engaged in class. When teachers devote
time and energy to improve a student’s engagement, the student benefits. At
the same time, teachers are likely to get at least some “return on investment”
to the extent that they may themselves feel more engaged, efficacious, and
satisfied with their jobs.

60
The SEC model provides a reasonable, researched, and reliable frame-
work to help teachers spend their resources efficiently and effectively in areas
that are likely to have the biggest impact on student engagement: relation-
ships, relevance, and pedagogical expertise. When these areas are invested
in, students benefit and there is a pay off for the teacher as well. Engaged
students reenergize and revitalize teachers, reacquainting them with the rea-
sons most became educators in the first place, connecting with and nurturing
students, and teaching content in a way that is relevant to their lives.
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