1.
Gender Development,
Gender Roles, and
Gender Identity
Chapter 4

2.
4 What is Gender?
> Before 1970, most college campuses had gender-
segregated or single-sex dorms.
> As of early 2011, more than 54 universities offered
gender-neutral housing
> So how do we determine gender?

3.
4 Sex vs. Gender
> Sex: the biological aspects of being male or
female.
> Gender: the behavioral, psychological, and social
characteristics of men and women.

4.
4 Gender Stereotypes and Sexuality
> Gender stereotypes shape our opinions about how
men and women act sexually.
> Do you believe that men are usually the initiators of
sex, and are women more into “making love” than
“having sex”?
> Nature or Nurture?

5.
4 Conception
> Simple vs Complex
reproduction
> Most cells in the human
body contain forty-six
chromosomes arranged in
twenty-three pairs.
> The germ cells from the
male and from the female
each contains half of the
new person’s genes

6.
4 Conception
> During fertilization, the
gametes, each containing 23
chromosomes join to produce
a zygote containing forty-six
chromosomes.
> The zygote can now undergo
mitosis, or cell division, and
reproduce its forty-six
chromosomes.

7.
4 Sexual Differentiation
> A human embryo
typically undergoes
about nine months of
gestation.

8.
4 Sexual Differentiation
> Endocrine glands, such as
the gonads, secrete hormones
directly into the bloodstream to
be carried to the target organs.
> Male and female organs that
began from the same prenatal
tissue are called
homologous.
> Androgens produce male
characteristics and estrogen
produce female
characteristics.

9.
4
External Genitalia and
Sexual Development

10.
4 Sexual Differentiation
> Most hormonal secretions are regulated by the
brain, yet hormones also affect the development
of the brain.
> Female brains control menstruation and must
signal the release of hormones in a monthly cycle,
whereas male brains signal release of hormones
continuously.

11.
4 Disorders of Sex Development

12.
4
Chromosomal Disorders
of Sex Development
Klinefelter syndrome
>Occurs in 1 of every 750 live
male births when an ovum
containing an extra X
chromosome is fertilized by a Y
sperm (an XXY), giving a child 47
chromosomes.

13.
4
Chromosomal Disorders
of Sex Development
> Turner syndrome occurs
in 1 of every 2,500 live
female births and results
from an ovum without any
sex chromosomes
fertilized by an X sperm
(XO), giving a child 45
chromosomes.

14.
4
Hormonal Disorders
of Sex Development
> Congenital Adrenal
Hyperplasia occurs for
children who lack an enzyme
in the adrenal gland and
produce higher than normal
levels of androgens.
> Androgen-Insensitivity
Syndrome occurs when
testosterone is present in the
body yet a developing male
is insensitive to it.

15.
4 Gender Roles and Gender Traits
> We find it difficult to interact with
someone without knowing his /
her gender
> Gender roles are culturally
determined ideas about gender
> Gender traits are innate or
biological differences based on
sex.

16.
4 Gender Roles and Gender Traits
> Masculinity and femininity refer to the ideal
cluster of traits that society attributes to each
gender
> Changing gender roles can result in confusion,
fear, and even hostility in society
> Behaviors are complex
> They are almost always developed through
interactions between one’s innate biological
capacities and the environment in which one
lives and acts.

17.
4
Biology, Culture and
Gender Differences
> Biological differences between genders include
> physical differences in body size and strength for males
> female “heartiness” and longevity
> brain size
> brain activity / usage by task
> Even so, culture can contradict
that trait or deny it

18.
4 Social Learning Theory of Gender
> We learn our gender roles from our
environment, and from the same
system of rewards and punishments
that we learn our other social roles.
> Children learn to model their
behavior after the same-gender
parent to win parental approval.

19.
4
Cognitive Development Theory
of Gender Differences
> All children go through a universal pattern
of development following the ideas of
Piaget (1951)
> He suggested that social attitudes in children
are mediated through their cognitive
developmental level.

20.
4 Gender Schema Theory
> Schemas
> cognitive mechanisms that organize our world
> Sandra Bem’s gender schema theory explains that
children and adults develop gender schemas by
which our thoughts and behavioral expectations of
gender are constructed universally.

21.
4 Masculine vs Feminine
> The Hunter
> It is difficult for men to live up to the strong social
demands of being male due to the contradictions
inherent in masculinity.
> Masculinity has it’s downside
> Men don’t live as long as women
> Have more stress-related illnesses
> More motor vehicle accidents
> More suicides

22.
4 Masculine vs Feminine
> The Nurturer
> Sheila Rothman (1978) has argued that
American society has gone through a
number of basic conceptions of what
“womanhood” should be, shifting from
“virtuous womanhood” to “educated
motherhood” to “wife-companion” to
“woman as person.”
> Many argue that the idea of femininity
itself is an attempt to mold women in
ways that are determined by men.

23.
4
Androgyny and the Concept
of Gender Spectrum
> In the 1970s, researchers suggested that
androgyny was a desirable state, since
androgynous individuals have greater flexibility in
behavior because they have a greater repertoire of
possible reactions to a situation.
• When people’s behaviors fall
outside of commonly
understood gender norms,
they might be referred to as
gender diverse or
transgender.

24.
4 Interview with Teo and Liz
Teo: A Transman Liz: A Transwoman

25.
4 Behavior and Gender Norms
> Although the majority of transgender people feel
confident about their biological sex and gender
identity, some experience gender dysphoria.
> Confusion, discomfort, or both
> The terms queer and genderqueer are umbrella
terms that refer to a range of different sexual
orientations, gender behaviorism or ideologies.

26.
4 Medical and Surgical Interventions
> Transsexualism: a condition in
which people identify with a
gender other than the one they
were given at birth.
> Not every transperson desires
genital surgery; some cannot
afford Sexual Reassignment
Surgery, while others are
content with the results of
hormonal therapy.

27.
4
Gender Diversity in
Non-Western Cultures
> Two-spirits (berdache): a term used in
Native American culture
> Xani-th (from Oman) are biological males
not considered male or female
> Hijra (from India) are also biological men
who are castrated and considered to have
special powers.
> Kathoey (from Thailand) similar to Xani-th.
> Aikane (from native Hawaii) who were
attached to the court of the chiefs and
served sexual, social, and political functions.
> Mahu (from Tahiti)

28.
4 Socialization
> Socialization refers to how individuals are
raised and are taught to behave through
parental, peer, educational, religious, social,
and legal influences.

29.
4 Childhood Socialization
> As early as age two, modeling behavior
begins to emerge, and children begin to
realize that objects and activities are
appropriate to specific genders
> Boys are treated more harshly when they
adopt cross-gender characteristics
> Children with a strong and persistent
identification with the other sex and are
uncomfortable with their own biological
sex may be diagnosed with gender-
identity disorder.

30.
4 Adolescence Socialization
> By adolescence, gender roles are firmly
established, and they guide adolescents
through their exploration of peer and
romantic relationships.
> Gender roles in adolescence are
changing, particularly in regards to
heterosexual relationships.

31.
4 Adult Gender Role Socialization
> In adulthood, men and women
derive their gender identity
mainly from their careers and
their family lives.
> In recent years, men’s and
women’s roles have been
changing in the workplace, as
many women have moved from
the home to paid employment.

32.
4
Older Adults and
Gender Role Socialization
> American culture values youthfulness and
therefore many negative stereotypes are present
toward this group, which is especially perpetuated
by the media.
> Women tend to be more vulnerable to these
negative attitudes as women who age are
considered “old”, while men are considered
“distinguished.”