1 A Guide to the Literary-Analysis Essay INTRODUCTION: the section in your essay. It begins creatively in order to catch your reader’s interest, provides essential background about the literary work, and prepares the reader for you major thesis. The introduction must include the author and title of the work as well as an explanation of the theme to be discussed. Other essential background may include setting, capsule plot summary, an introduction of main characters, and definition of terms. The major thesis goes at the end. Because the major thesis sometimes sounds tacked on, use a transition between the background information and the thesis of the essay. CREATIVE OPENING: the beginning sentences of the introduction that catches the reader’s interest. The types of introductions listed below are not the complete introductions. The examples only represent a type of introduction. The introduction is more than you see here. Ways of beginning creatively include the following: 1) A startling fact or bit of information Ex. Nearly two citizens were arrested as witches during the Salem witch scare of 1692. Eventually nineteen were hanged, and another was pressed to death (Marks 65). 2) A snatch of dialogue between two characters Ex. “It is another thing. You [Frederic Henry] cannot know about it unless you have it.” “Well,” I said. “If I ever get it I will tell you [priest].” (Hemingway 72). With these words, the priest in Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms sends the hero, Frederic, in search of the ambiguous “it” in his life. 3) A meaningful quotation (from the work or another source) Ex. “To be, or not to be, that is the question” {3.1.57}. This familiar statement expresses the young prince’s moral dilemma in William Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. 4) A universal idea. Ex. The terrifying scenes a soldier experiences on the front probably follow him throughout his life—if he manages to survive the war. 5) A rich, vivid description of the setting Ex. Sleepy Maycomb, like other Southern towns, suffers considerably during the Great Depression. Poverty reaches from the privileged families, like the Finches, to the Negroes and “white trash” Ewells, who live on the outskirts of town. Harper Lee paints a vivid picture of life in this humid Alabama town where tempers and bigotry explode into conflict. 2 6) An analogy or metaphor Ex. Life is like a box of chocolates: we never know what we’re going to get. This element of uncertainty plays a major role in many dramas. For example, in Shakespeare’s play, Romeo and Juliet have no idea what tragedies lie ahead when they fall so passionately and impetuously in love. 7) MAJOR THESIS: a statement that provides the subject and overall opinion of your essay. For a literary analysis your major thesis must (1) relate to the theme of the work and (2) suggest how this theme is revealed by the author. A good thesis may ...

1. 1
A Guide to the Literary-Analysis Essay
INTRODUCTION: the section in your essay. It begins
creatively in order to catch your
reader’s interest, provides essential background about the
literary work, and prepares the reader
for you major thesis. The introduction must include the author
and title of the work as well
as an explanation of the theme to be discussed. Other essential
background may include
setting, capsule plot summary, an introduction of main
characters, and definition of terms.
The major thesis goes at the end. Because the major thesis
sometimes sounds tacked on, use
a transition between the background information and the thesis
of the essay.
CREATIVE OPENING: the beginning sentences of the
introduction that catches the reader’s
interest. The types of introductions listed below are not the
complete introductions. The
examples only represent a type of introduction. The
introduction is more than you see here.
Ways of beginning creatively include the following:
1) A startling fact or bit of information

2. Ex. Nearly two citizens were arrested as witches during the
Salem witch scare of 1692.
Eventually nineteen were hanged, and another was pressed to
death (Marks 65).
2) A snatch of dialogue between two characters
Ex. “It is another thing. You [Frederic Henry] cannot know
about it unless you have it.” “Well,”
I said. “If I ever get it I will tell you [priest].” (Hemingway 72).
With these words, the priest in
Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms sends the hero,
Frederic, in search of the ambiguous
“it” in his life.
3) A meaningful quotation (from the work or another source)
Ex. “To be, or not to be, that is the question” {3.1.57}. This
familiar statement expresses the
young prince’s moral dilemma in William Shakespeare’s
tragedy Hamlet, Prince of Denmark.
4) A universal idea.
Ex. The terrifying scenes a soldier experiences on the front
probably follow him throughout his
life—if he manages to survive the war.
5) A rich, vivid description of the setting
Ex. Sleepy Maycomb, like other Southern towns, suffers
considerably during the Great
Depression. Poverty reaches from the privileged families, like
the Finches, to the Negroes and
“white trash” Ewells, who live on the outskirts of town. Harper

3. Lee paints a vivid picture of life
in this humid Alabama town where tempers and bigotry explode
into conflict.
2
6) An analogy or metaphor
Ex. Life is like a box of chocolates: we never know what we’re
going to get. This element of
uncertainty plays a major role in many dramas. For example, in
Shakespeare’s play, Romeo and
Juliet have no idea what tragedies lie ahead when they fall so
passionately and impetuously in
love.
7) MAJOR THESIS: a statement that provides the subject and
overall opinion of your
essay. For a literary analysis your major thesis must (1) relate
to the theme of the
work and (2) suggest how this theme is revealed by the author.
A good thesis may
also suggest the organization of the paper.
Examples

4. Ex. Through Paul’s experience behind the lines, at a Russian
prisoner of war camp, and
especially under bombardment in the trenches, Erich Maria
Remarque realistically shows how
war dehumanizes a man. Sometimes a thesis becomes too
cumbersome to fit into one sentence.
In such cases, you may express the major thesis as two
sentences.
Ex. In a Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens shows the process
by which a wasted life can be
redeemed. Sidney Carton, through his love for Lucie Manette, is
transformed from a hopeless,
bitter man into a hero whose life and death have meaning.
TOPIC SENTENCE/SUPPORT THESIS: the first sentence of a
body or support paragraph. It
identifies one aspect of the major thesis and states a primary
reason why the major thesis is
true.
Example: When he first appears in the novel, Sidney Carton is a
loveless outcast who seems
little worth in himself or in others.
BODY: the support paragraphs of your essay.
Collect Evidence and Group Similar Details
Once you have a clear thesis you can go back to your list of
selected evidence and group all the
similar details together. The ideas that tie these clusters of

5. evidence together can then become the
claims/assertions/topic sentences that you will use in your
paper. As you begin thinking about
3
what claims you can make (i.e. what kinds of conclusion you
can come to about details and
events), keep in mind that they should not only relate to all the
evidence but also clearly support
your thesis. Once you are satisfied with the way you have
grouped your evidence and with the
way that your claims relate to your thesis, you can begin to
consider the most logical way to
organize each of those claims
Interpret your evidence
Avoid the temptation to load your paper with evidence from
your story. Each time you use a
specific reference to your story, be sure to explain the
significance of that evidence in your own
words. To get your readers’ interest, you need to draw their
attention to elements of the story that
they would not necessarily notice or understand on their own. If
you are quoting passages
without interpreting them, you are not demonstrating your
reasoning skills or helping the
reader. In most cases, interpreting your evidence merely
involves putting into your paper what is
already in your head. Remember that we, as readers, are lazy—
all of us. We do not want to have
to figure out a writer’s reasoning for ourselves; we want all the

6. thinking to be done for us in the
paper.
These paragraphs contain supporting examples (concrete detail)
and analysis/explanation
(commentary) for your topic sentences/support theses. Each
paragraph in the body includes (1) a
topic sentence/support thesis, (2) integrated concrete detail and
commentary, and (3) a
concluding sentence. In its simplest form, each body paragraph
is organized as follows:
1. topic sentence / support thesis
2. lead-in to concrete detail
3. concrete detail
4. commentary
5. transition and lead-in to next concrete detail
6. concrete detail
7. commentary
4

7. 8. concluding or clincher sentence
CONCRETE DETAIL: a specific example from the work used
to provide evidence for your
topic sentence/support thesis. Concrete detail can be a
combination of paraphrase and direct
quotation from the work.
Example: When Carlton and Darnay first meet at the tavern,
Carlton tells him, “I care for no
man on this earth, and no man cares for me” (Dickens 105).
COMMENTARY: your explanation and interpretation of the
concrete detail.
Commentary tells the reader what the author of the text means
or how the concrete detail proves
the topic sentence/support thesis. Commentary may include
interpretation, analysis, argument,
insight, and/or reflection. (Helpful hint: In your body
paragraph, you should have twice as
much commentary as concrete detail.
Example: Carton makes this statement as if he were excusing
his rude behavior to Darnay.
Carton, however, is only pretending to be polite, perhaps to
amuse himself. With this seemingly
off-the-cuff remark, Carton reveals a deeper cynicism and his
emotional isolation.

8. TRANSITIONS: words or phrases that connect or “hook” one
idea to the next, both between
and within paragraphs. Transition devices include using
connecting words as well as repeating
key words or using synonyms.
Example: Another example… Finally, in the climax…
Later in the story… In contrast to this behavior…
Not only…but also… Furthermore…
LEAD-IN: phrase or sentence that prepares the reader for a
concrete detail by
5
introducing the speaker, setting, and/or situation.
Ex. Later, however, when the confident Sidney Carton returns
alone to his home, his alienation
and unhappiness become apparent: “Climbing into a high
chamber in a well of houses, he threw
himself down in his clothes on a neglected bed, and its pillow
was wet with wasted tears”

9. (Dickens 211).
CLINCHER/CONCLUDING SENTENCE: last sentence of the
body paragraph. It concludes
the paragraph by trying the concrete details and commentary
back to the major thesis.
Ex. Thus, before Carton experiences love, he is able to convince
himself that the world has no
meaning.
CONCLUSION: last section of your essay. This paragraph
should begin by echoing your major
thesis without repeating the words verbatim. Then, the
conclusion should broaden from the thesis
statements to answer the “so what?” question your reader may
have after reading your essay.
The conclusion should do one or more of the following:
1) Reflect on how your essay topic relates to the the literary
work as a whole
2) Evaluate how successful the author is in achieving his or
her goal or message
3) Make predictions
4) Connect back to your creative opening

10. 5) Give your opinion of the the literary work’s value or
significance
1
LITERARY ESSAY ASSIGNMENT DIRECTIONS Writing an
Analytical Essay for Short
(Story, Drama, or Poetry: A Guide)
You are to write a focused paper in which you analyze and
interpret the theme and its
connection to one literary element in a selected short story or
play we have read and discussed.
Interpret means to explain in your own words a work’s
meanings. Analyze means to examine
or to look at one part at a time in order to reach a conclusion or
make a decision.
STEPS TO FOLLOW IN WRITING THE PAPER:
1. Select a story we have read and discussed.
2. Reread the story for a clear understanding of theme and

11. literary elements that
relate to the theme.
3. Select a clearly defined theme and one literary element such
as character,
setting, symbol(s), point of view, irony, imagery, tone, or style.
This element
must clearly be a vehicle that the writer uses to project and
develop the theme.
4. Draft a thesis statement which includes title and author,
statement of the theme,
specific literary element to be analyzed, and assertion.
5. Write a rough draft, incorporating your interpretations and
analysis with quotes,
paraphrases, summary from the story (a plot summary will
result in a failing
grade). Here are some further suggestions:
A. Use literary present tense to write the paper.
B. Use action verbs (a partial list is provided).
C. Make people, places, or things the subjects of sentences
rather than the
events of the story the focus of the sentence.
D. Use quotes (short or long) in each paragraph.
E. Use your own ideas and words.

12. 2
Writing an Analytical Essay for Short Story, Drama, or Poetry:
A Guide
Reading the Story
A. Read the story closely.
1. Notice the details.
2. Answer basic questions
a. Point of View? Narrator?
b. Setting?
c. Major characters?
d. Plot: conflicts, complication, and resolution
B. Read the story analytically.
II.
Choosing the Topic of the Essay
A. Avoid irrelevant topics
1. Personal experiences
2. Author’s biography
3. Judgements of the author’s style or contributions to literature
B. Choose an appropriate topic

13. 1. Consider the emphasis of the story
2. Consider restrictions of time and space
3. Consider the adequacy of supporting details
III. Taking Notes for the Essay
Take down information from the story that applies to your topic
A. Types of information include:
1. Descriptions
2. Bits of dialogue
3. Actions
4. Expository information
I V. Formulate a Thesis for the Essay
A. The thesis should provide the following information:
1. Author and title of work
2. Topic of analysis
3. Idea concerning topic
B. The thesis should be phrased precisely and unambiguously
Organize Your Notes
3

14. A. Write your rough draft; give attention primairly to
content and organization
B. Fit the supporting details into a logical framework under
the major headings.
VI. Write Your Essay
A. Write your rough draft; give attention primarily to content
and organization.
C. Revise your rough draft. In the finished copy, polish the
style, coherence,
mechanics/grammar of first draft(s).
Exercise: Evaluate the following thesis statements taken from
earlier English 102 essays.
1. After reading “A Rose for Emily,” I can understand why
Faulkner won the Nobel
Prize for Literature.
2. Edith Wharton uses irony in her portrayal of Mrs. Ansley
and Mrs. Slade, the major
characters in “Roman Fever.”
3. The character Sammy is developed through his attitude
towards his boss, the
customers, and Queenie and her friends.
4. The key to understanding Sammy, the protagonist of

15. Updike’s ‘‘A & P,’’ is his
immature attitude. This attitude is developed through his
descriptions of co—workers,
regular customers, and the girls in bikinis.
5. Through two very important symbols, the dream of the doe
and the sea, the writer
paints a picture of the inevitable future where the main
character realizes she will not be
able to avoid her precarious growth into womanhood.
6. I think gender prejudice is very evil and this is
brought out in ‘‘Doe Season.’’
7. Why are people so cruel? This is the question asked by
Jackson’s story “The Lottery.”
8. In Shirley Jackson’s ‘‘The Lottery,’’ the townspeople do not
question the importance
of the lottery, yet many of its details have been altered
throughout the years.
4
LITERARY ANALYSIS
An analysis for literary elements explores or evaluates a

16. technical aspect of a literary
work. Probably the most common approach to writing
literature, the analysis of a literary
element thoroughly examines some literary device that helps
weld together the mosaic of the
entire work. Common elements include:
characterization tone/mood
setting imagery
plot figures of speech
theme rhyme
point of view rhythm
symbol
For Character
an analysis of what the character says, thinks, and does,
pointing out any discrepancies,
an analysis of what others say about the character,
an analysis of any differences between what the reader observes
of the character and what
others say about him/her,
an evaluation of any direct description by the author about the
character.
For Setting
an evaluation of the relationship of setting to the work’s mood,
an evaluation of the setting as it reflects the work’s theme
an evaluation of the setting’s impact on the characters,
an analysis of the impact the setting has on the conflict,
an explanation of change in setting as it affects change in mood,

17. characters or conflict.
For Plot
an analysis of the exposition or beginning, of the story or
drama,
an evaluation of the rising action,
an analysis of the climax, or high point,
an analysis of the falling action,
examination of special techniques of plot, like foreshadowing
and flashback.
For Point of View
a description of the point of view: first, second, or third person
(if third person, specify
which type),
an analysis of the impact of the point of view on the theme,
plot, conflict, or
characterization.
For Symbolism
5
a careful explanation of the development of the symbol,
a symbolic interpretation of the work, including—

18. citations of specific instances
throughout the work
an explanation of the overall impact of the symbol or, the
work’s theme or underlying
message.
For Tone
a description of tone as it appears throughout the work or within
a specified section of the work,
an analysis of how the author achieved this tone
an explanation of the impact of the tone on the work’s theme.
For Mood
a description of mood as it appears throughout the work or
within a specified section of the work
an analysis of how the author achieved this mood,
an explanation of the impact of the mood on the work’s theme.
For Imagery
an indication of the specific image or images being
an explanation of the development of the image or images
throughout the work,
an analysis of the importance of the image or images to the
meaning or enjoyment of the work
an evaluation of the interrelationship between the image or
images and other literary elements.

19. For Figures of Speech
an indication of the specific figure(s) of speech being analyzed,
an explanation of the use of the figure(s) of speech throughout
the work,
an analysis of the importance of the figure(s) of speech to the
meaning or enjoyment of the work,
an evaluation of the interrelationship between the figure(s) of
speech and other literary elements.
For Rhyme
a description of the pattern, including internal rhyme if any,an
analysis of the impact of any
departure from the pattern
an evaluation of rhyme as one of the many sound devices
available to a poet, including its
interaction with the other devices to create an overall impact
For Rhythm
a description of the rhythm’s pattern
6
an analysis of the impact of any departure from the pattern, an
evaluation of the impact of
rhythm on word or thought groups
an evaluation of rhythm as one of the many sound devices

20. available to a poet, including
its interaction with the other devices to create an overall
impact.
With any literary analysis, careful reading precedes any other
activity. Once you decide
which of the many elements you in a given work, whether as a
result of an assignment or
personal preference, reread the work searching for examples.
Study the element’s relationship to
other parts of the work and its impact on the work.
As you reread, make notes. If you are using your own copy of
the book, you may wish to
pencil in notations of important words, phrases, or passages. If
you are using a copy not your
own, take notes on note cards, on separate sheets of paper. You
might also make a photocopy of
the work on which you can make notes.
ANALYTICAL LANGUAGE AND TONE
Another hint that can help your paper sound and read like an
analytical paper is careful word
selection. Too many students rely on “be” verbs (is, are, am)
when they write. There is nothing
technically wrong with these verb choices when used effectively
and selectively, but the most
powerful and effective writing uses action verbs. When writing
and proofreading your drafts, try
using some words from the lists below. Especially use them in
the thesis.

21. means
examine symbolize(s) encounter
explore portray illustrates
offer (s) seems describes
display express (es) alludes to
suggest(s) conveys can be seen
uses implies chooses to
parallels chooses to realize
discover refers to develops
Also, use nouns that readily express the purpose of this paper—
analysis. This is not a
mystery paper; use literary terminology. Here are a few literary
terms:
theme character setting
symbol point of view simile
symbolism metaphor description
struggle irony allusion
conflict action plot
simile comparison style
These techniques are only hints and suggestions; they should
not be taken to extremes.
7
LITERARY PRESENT TENSE
In writing about essays, stories, poems, drama, the writer uses
the literary present tense.

22. Generally speaking, the work of art (even though created in the
past) EXISTS IN THE
PRESENT TENSE AS ONE EXPERIENCES IT. When one
analyzes the work, s/he describes it
as if s/he were presentlv perceiving its ideas, actions,
characters, and so forth.
For example, if a writer is discussing Swift’s “Modest
Proposal,” s/he should say, “When
Swift’s persona describes the plight of the Irish poor, he makes
heavy use of numbers and
statistics, and compares humans to livestock.”
The writer should NOT say, “When Swift’s persona described
the plight of the Irish poor,
he made heavy use of number and statistics, and compared
humans to livestock.”
Similarly, the writer refers to his/her reaction to the work in the
present tense. For
example, one might say. ‘‘Swift forces his reader to reject the
ideas of the monstrous persona;
the reader agrees with humanitarian suggestions that Swift
himself proposes.” In this example we
see that the writer also refers to Swift’s creation of the work in
the present tense.
To summarize, the writer writes about a work as though the
work were going on in the
present, as though the author were writing it in the present, and

23. as though s/he were perceiving it
in the present.
SAMPLE THESIS STATEMENTS
SHORT STORY ANALYSIS
In Doris Lessing’s “A Woman on a Roof,’’ the character
Stanley illustrates the theme of male
dominance through his reactions to the sunbather.
Characteristics that surface are his temper, his
ego, and his defensiveness.
The settings of the car, the parking lot, and the lake in T.
Coraghessan Boyle’s “Greasy Lake”
symbolize the stages of the narrator’s induction to badness.
In the short story “Teenage Wasteland,” Anne Tyler expresses
the theme ineffectuality through
Daisy Coles insecurities. Her self-doubt lies in her appearance,
her ignorance as a parent, and
her inability to stand for her beliefs.
In “Greasy Lake,” T. Coraghessan Boyle illustrates the theme of
badness by using the different
male characters to symbolize its three levels: superficial, active,
and complete.
In Doris Lessing’ s ‘‘A Woman on the Roof,’’ the character
Tom represents the theme of
adolescent responses to women through his fantasies, his
protectiveness, and his inexperience.

24. 8
Through the use of music imagery, Joyce Carol Oates in “Where
Are You Going? Where Have
You Been?” develops the theme of popular of popular culture’s
on a teenage girl. The music
imagery surfaces in its underlying message, its varying
intensity, and its constant presence.
Works Cited
Boyle, T. Coraghessan. ‘‘Greasy Lake.’’ Literature: Reading,
Reacting, Writing. Third Edition.
Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell, eds. Fort Worth:
Harcourt, 1997. 397-405.
SAMPLE ANALYSIS PARAGRAPHS
Stanley’s reactions with his temper also reveal his sense of
dominance over the woman on the
roof. After a second attempt to get the woman’s attention,
Stanley becomes irate because she
does not respond. His need to dominate the situation is
complicated by her ignoring him; he
responds by cursing: “Bitch” (526). Stanley also loses his
temper easily as he works on the job.

25. He swears, yells, curses, when something goes wrong (529-30).
This cursing and temper
tantrums may suggest a wounded pride. The woman’s ignoring
of him hurts; therefore, he
believes he should inflict pain on her. But, the woman continues
to show “indifference” to
Stanley no matter what he does (526). This lack of control
throws Stanley into fits of anger:
“His sun-heated face was screwed into a rage as he whistled
again and again trying to make her
look up (526). Stanley is obviously not very knowledgeable in
dealing with women who ignore
him, thus explaining his angry reactions. Once again Stanley
maintains his image of dominance
through the display of his temper.
The lake represents the narrator’s induction to the evil side
of badness. This place is the only
escape from the “cops and bloodhounds” (402) who are
pursuing him for his “Ur-crimes” (401).
Instead of escape or purification, though, he finds cold-blooded
“frogs, snakes, and red-eyed
turtles” (401). These, along with-the cold dead man he
stumbles upon (402), represent a

26. repulsive, evil world of “primal badness” (401). Loneliness and
death lurk in the lake; “in these
ooze sucking waters,” (402) he confronts the murk of his own
physical and emotional evil. As
the narrator lies in the lake, his jacket becomes waterlogged and
“heavy as a bear”(403), and his
9
shoes get “sucked into the muck!”(402). Both of these
represent the great weight of
conscience that pulls at his body and soul as he is further
introduced to “the primordial ooze” of
true badness (403). By the time he returns to the lake’s shore as
the dawn breaks (404), the
narrator has a revelation that this third stage of badness is not
for him.
Every aspect of Daisy’s appearance, from her body language
to her clothing reveals how
insecure she is. Even though she wants to convey a sense of
self-assuredness, Daisy sits in the
principal’s office pathetically “ clutching her purse” (569).
Instead of acting like an adult in
command, she seems more like a child being reprimanded. A

27. second visit to the principal has
Daisy and her husband Matt seated “like two bad children”
(570). Neither of Donny’s parents is
strong enough to hold their heads high and take control of the
situation. It is not that Daisy
wants to be responsible; it is that she wants other to believe she
is --: she wished she had worn
nylons instead of socks” (570). Daisy’s attempts to seem like a
capable parent are in vain
because she has no self-worth and pictures herself as an
“overweight housewife” (570). Since
she does not respect herself, neither do her children, and she is
an ineffective parent because of
it.
The physical descriptions of Miss Emily begin the
development of her character. When she
first appears, Miss Emily is an older woman, probably in her
sixties. She is described as a “fat
woman in black” whose yes “looked like tow small pieces of
coal pressed into a lump of dough”
(6). This first description gives the impression that Miss Emily
is not only unconcerned with her
appearance but also unconcerned about the impression she

28. makes on other people which is
supported by her actions towards the aldermen. In the second
description of Miss Emily, she is a
young woman in her twenties: “a slender figure in white in the
background” (25). An innocent
girl who is “tragic and serene” (29), Emily is concerned with
both her physical and social
appearances. In the final detailed description, Emily is a thin
woman in her thirties who has
“cold” eyes and taught skin (34). Emily has changed in ten
years from a semi-attractive girl to a
cold woman who distances herself from others. Although the
third description seems to be
distantly removed from the grotesque woman she becomes, the
“cold” eyes (34) lead to the body
that “has grown fat” (48) and later to her “bloated” (6) body at
age sixty. These physical
descriptions chronicle the outward changes in Emily’s
appearance while they mirror the changes
10
in her attitude, from a young innocent to an old recluse. These
powerful descriptions help to
develop the character of Miss Emily.