Sarason11 ch01

Chapter 1.
Definitions of
“Abnormal”

Definitions of “abnormal”
 Difficulty in coping as perceived by the individual.
 Difficulty in coping as perceived by others.
Theoretical model.
 Statistical deviation.
 Cultural & social norms.
 What is included in a diagnostic system (e.g. DSM-IV)
 Deviancy depends upon the context or situation.
Abnormal Psychology, 11/e
by Sarason & Sarason © 2005

Markers of abnormality
Behavior
Feelings or affect
Thought or cognitive process
Physiological responses
External situation

A Working Definition of “Abnormal Behavior”
Abnormal behavior is maladaptive behavior--any
behavior that does not facilitate the ultimate well-being
of the individual and/or the group. A behavior is
abnormal if it keeps the individual from coping with the
normal stresses of life.
(Note that this definition begs the question of what the
"normal” stresses of life are).

The Vulnerability Model
Vulnerability
(biological, psychological,
and social)
Stressor
Processes
(Biological, psychological,
and social)
Outcome

Epidemiological Perspectives
Prevalence--the rate of both new & existing cases
Point prevalence - the proportion of people who have a disorder
at a specific time
Lifetime prevalence -the proportion of people in the general
population who have ever had a particular disorder
Incidence--the rate of new cases during a defined period of time
Risk factor--a specific characteristic or condition whose presence is
associated with an increased likelihood that a specific disorder is
present, or will develop at a later date.
Resiliency factor- a specific characteristic or condition whose
presence is associated with an decreased likelihood that a specific
disorder is present, or will develop at a later date.

 Psychologist
 Psychiatrist
 Social worker
 Psychiatric nurse (also R.N., Clinical Nurse Specialist)
 Occupational therapist
 Family Therapist
Mental Health Professions

A Brief History of
Abnormal Psychology

Demonological
Medical/ biological model
Environmental/ social model
Psychogenic model
Vulnerability model--biopsychosocial model
To some degree, all of these models still prevail today.
Models in Psychopathology

Historical Highlights
Stone Age; trephination, religious accounts of abnormal behavior
Early Chinese, Hebrews, Greeks
Hippocrates (470- 370 BC) - "humours" or bodily fluids: excess or
too little of each led to problems, as follows.
1. Blood changeability
2. Black bile  melancholic
3. Yellow bile anxiety
4. Phlegm  sluggish
Recognized disorders: 1) mania; 2) melancholia; 3) phrenitis or
swelling of the brain.

Historical Highlights- continued
Dark Ages (200 A.D. to the Renaissance).
European Middle Ages
Throughout this period, there was increased conflict between the
church & witchcraft—
Dancing Manias
"Malleus Maleficarum” (The Witch Hammer)
Salem Witch Trials
Exorcism was a common treatment ↔

Saint Catherine Exorcising a Possessed Woman (by Girolamo Di Benvenuto)

•Establishment of Mental Hospitals or Asylums
•E.g. St. Mary’s of Bethlehem- 1547
•Reform– P. Pinel (1745- 1815)
• Benjamin Rush (1745- 1813)-- moral treatment.
↔

•Middle to late 1800s: Emergence of psychiatry
(primarily medical model)
•Early diagnosis: E. Kraepelin (1856-1926)
•Psychological Theories & Causes (Freud, Jung,
Adler)
•Behavioral models (1920s)
•The “Third Force”- humanistic models
•Biological models (especially since 1950s and 60s)
•Deinstitutionalization ↔
•Cognitive revolution in psychology (1970s and
continuing)

Research Methods

Steps in Research

1. Specify the topic as clearly & precisely as possible.
2. Review the relevant literature.
3. Define the variables:
- Independent variables are conditions or factors that are
being studied or manipulated
- Dependent variables are what your observe as outcomes
4. Develop a specific hypothesis or hypotheses.
5. Select a research strategy--how will the hypothesis be tested?
6. Conduct the study.
7. Analysing the result, using descriptive and/or inferential
statistics. The former describe the sample (e.g. means,
s.d.) & the latter provide probabilistic judgments.
8. Report the findings.

Types of Research- I
Case studies--Usually detailed clinical description of a single
subject--can provide important ideas or hypotheses regarding a
specific disorder, theory, etc. May be useful for rare disorders.
Correlational studies--look at the relationships between variables or
sets of variables--again, has limited utility, but can provide useful
preliminary information. ↔
Assessment studies--use of objective, standardized assessment
data on small or large groups of people. Essentially correlational in
nature. Epidemiological studies of population disorders fall in this
category.

Correlational
Patterns

Types of Research- II
Epidemiological designs ↔
Cross-sectional studies– done at a specific point in time, with
specific individuals.
Longitudinal studies--assessment studies done over time, with the
same group of individuals.
Follow-up studies--follow-up of smaller, more specific group of
individuals, usually shorter time period than longitudinal.

Types of Research- III
Experimental studies--usually use inferential statistics. Two major
types:
1. Hypothesis-testing experiment
2. Behavior-change experiment or N =1 designs(do the
treatment methods impact the expected behavior change?).

Hypothesis testing

The results of a (hypothetical) true experiment
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Pre-
treatment
Post-
treatment
6- month
follow-up
No treatment
Drug therapy
Behaviour
Therapy
The treatment of Panic Disorder; using self-reported
anxiety as the outcome

A hypothetical N = 1 design
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Self-reported
anxiety
Observed
avoidance
behaviour
Pre-intervention Post-intervention
The treatment of social anxiety using behavioral assignments

Research Design, Statistical Analysis & Inference
Internal validity--are the results of the study attributable to the manipulation of the I.V.?
A well controlled study usually has good internal validity.
External validity--do these results reflect any external reality? Is the manipulation in
the lab related to "real life"?
Descriptive & inferential statistics
Confounding of results--an uncontrolled (& unknown) variable may affect the d.v. &
mistakenly be attributed to the i.v.
Reactivity--changes in behavior as a result of being studied or observed. E.g. the
"Novelty" effect of being in an experiment.
Demand characteristics--clues giving out to subjects as to how they are "supposed" to
behave.
Expectancy effects--similar to above, but has to do with experimenters, assessors'
expectations of how the subjects should be responding. Abnormal Psychology, 11/e

Who your participants are matters!
Population
Sampling:
- Random sampling
- Stratified sampling
Representative
sample
Experimental
group
Control
group

Ethics of Research
There are strict standards for human and animal research have been
set by professional groups (e.g. American Psychological Association)
All research at universities must be approved prior to it being
conducted & must follow the guidelines set by the federal granting
agencies.
Most institutions have research guidelines or requirements for
research conducted in them (e.g. hospitals, community programs).
All of the above have complaints procedures, and legal liabilities for
failure to follow required standards.

Ethics of Research
Key issues include:
1. Informed consent
2. Competence to provide consent
3. Lack of coercion/ voluntary consent
4. Identification of risks
5. Protection of vulnerable populations (e.g. children, mentally
disordered)
6. Risk management and offset

Sarason11 ch01

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