1.
By :
Ahmad Adnan bin Mohd Shukri

2.
Introduction
– QD is based in the scientific method.
– Uses deductive reasoning.
– Researcher forms hypothesis, collects data in an
investigation of the problem.
– Then, uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is
made and conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses
are true or false.

3.
4 Types of Quantitative Design
1. Experimental studies
2. Comparative
3. Correlational
4. Survey

4.
Experimental Studies
– Often called true experimentation.
– Use the scientific method to establish cause-effect
relationship among variables in a research study.
– Researchers make an effort to control for all variables except
the one being manipulated (independent variable).
– The effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable are collected and analysed for a relationship.

5.
– Although questions may be posed in the other forms of
research, experimental research is guided specifically by a
hypothesis.
– Sometimes experimental research can have several
hypotheses.
– A hypothesis is a statement to be proven or disproved.
– Once that statement is made, experiment is begun

6.
The major feature that distinguishes
experimental research from other types of
research is ….
–the researcher manipulates
the independent variable.

7.
–Subjects are randomly
assigned to experimental
treatments

8.
Experimental designs should be
developed to ensure internal and
external validity of the study

9.
Internal Validity
– Are the results of the study (DV) caused by the factors
included in the study (IV) or are they caused by other factors
extraneous variables (EV) which were not part of the study.
– EV are unwanted variables that may have an effect on the
experimental outcome. (ex: if you ware worried about
gender, only include one gender in the study).

10.
Threats to Internal Validity
– Subject characteristics ( Selection Bias)
– The groups may have been different from the start. If you
were testing instructional strategies to improve reading and
one group enjoyed reading more than the other group, they
may improve more in their reading because they enjoy it,
rather than the instructional strategy you used.

11.
– Location
– Perhaps one group was at a disadvantage because of their
location.
– Example, the city may have been demolishing a building next
to one of the school in your study, there are constant
distractions which interfere with your treatment.

12.
– Instrumentation (Instrument Decay)
– The testing instruments may not be scored similarly. Perhaps
the person grading the post test is fatigued and pays less
attention to the last set of papers reviewed. It may be that
those papers are from one of your groups and will receive
different scores from the earlier group’s paper.

13.
– Data collector bias
– The person collecting data may have favours one group or
some characteristics some subject posses over another.
– Example, a teacher who favours strict classroom
management may rate student’s attention under different
teaching conditions with a bias toward one of the teaching
conditions.

14.
– Resentful demoralization of the control group
– The control group may become discouraged because it is not
receiving the special attention that is given to the treatment
group. They may perform lower than usual because of this.

15.
Once the researchers are confident that the outcome
(DV) of the experiment they are designing is the result
of their treatment (IV) internal validity, they determine
for which people or situations the results of their study
apply external validity

16.
External Validity
– Are the results of the study generalizable (can be
applied) to other populations and settings
– Comes in two forms :
1) Population validity
2) Ecological validity

17.
Population Validity
– Is the extent to which the results of a study can be
generalized from the specific sample that was
studied to a larger group of subjects

18.
Ecological Validity
– Is the extent to which the results of an experiment
can be generalized from the set of environmental
conditions created by the researcher to other
environmental conditions (settings and conditions)

19.
Threats to External Validity
– Pretest Sensitization
– A treatment might only work if a pre-test is given. Because they have
taken a pretest, the subjects may be more sensitive to the treatment. Had
they not taken a pre-test, the treatment would not have worked.
– Measurement of the DV
– A treatment may only be evident with certain types of measurements. A
teaching method may produce superior results when its effectiveness is
tested with an essay test, but show no differences when the effectiveness
is measured with a MCQ test. (maybe only works with MCQ test)

20.
– First and foremost, an experiment must have internal validity.
If the researchers cannot certain that the results of the
experiment are dependent on the treatment, it does not
matter to which people or situations they wish to generalize
(apply) their findings. The importance of external validity is
reliant on having internal validity in much the same way that
the validity of a measurement instrument is reliant on the
instrument being reliable.

21.
Different Research Designs
1) One-shot case study design
2) One-group pre test-post test design
3) Static group pre test-post test design
4) Static group comparison design
5) Randomized post test only, control group design
6) Randomized pre test-post test control group design
7) Randomized Solomon four-group design

22.
One-shot case study design

23.
One-group pre test-post test
design

24.
Static group pre test-post test
design

25.
Static group comparison design

26.
Randomized post test only, control
group design

27.
Randomized pre test-post test
control group design

28.
Randomized Solomon four-group
design

29.
– Each of the design described in this section has
advantages and disadvantages that influence the
studies internal and external validity.

30.
 Quasi is
“resembling”
 Quasi experiment involve procedures that resemble those of true
experiments.
31
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

31.
 Include intervention or treatments but lack degree of “control”
 e.g Lack of Randomization
32

32.
33
 Quasi Experimental Designs
 This type of design involves a
treatment (manipulation ) and an
outcome but lacks one of the other
two properties that characterize a
true experiment: randomization or a
control group.
 Example: if you want to study the
effects of smoking on a variable, you
cannot randomly assign people to
smoking vs nonsmoking group.

33.
34
 Quasi-experimental
Methodology
In this methodology, the
essential controls are not
administered, such as
treatments not being
randomized. It is otherwise
similar in structure to a true
experimental design.

34.
 Types of Quasi Experiments
 One group pre-test post-test design
 Non equivalent control group design
 Interrupted time series design
 Time series with non-equivalent control group designs
35
Why need quasi experiments ?

35.
 One group pretest- post test design represents
Pre –experimental design
36
One group pretest – post test design

36.
 Comparison of treatment group and comparison group/
control group
 Pre-test and post-test measures are used
37
Non equivalent control group design

37.
38
 Non equivalent control groups - other than the
absence of randomly assigned groups, these
designs are similar to experimental designs .
However, lack of random assignment to control
and experimental groups, can not assure that the
groups are equal. The researcher must do
everything possible to show that there are no
differences. For example, a pretest may show that
there is no difference. If the study is done on "after
only data", this control is not present

38.
 Manipulation of independent variable
 Pretest for all of the comparison groups
 Post test for all comparison groups
 No random assignment to the comparison groups
(which as you can imagine is going to cause some
problems with this design as compared to the
strong “randomized” experimental designs.
39
Essential features

39.
 In education, difficult to do true experiment
because of the difficulty to have randomization, no
control on the scheduling of treatment.
 Lost part of the power due to lack of randomization
(assignment of subjects)
 Control of extraneous variable, difficult.
 External validity is enhanced ―> may be moving
toward real world setting
40

40.
41
 Use when true experiment is not possible
 Any design that does not randomly assigned subjects to
the group is known as quasi-experimental designs.
 Researchers do not use randomization but rely instead
on other techniques to control threat to internal validity

41.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
MuhamadAisamuddin Ridhuan

42.
To discover
c0-relationships
among two or
more variables
To describe the
relationship; to predict
one variable from the
other
.
is considered type of observational research
as nothing is manipulated by the
experimenter or individual conducting the
research
Also known as
associational
research
Nothing was
controlled by the
researchers.
In other words, we can not make
statements concerning cause and
effect on the basis of this type of
research.
Is often conducted as exploratory or
beginning research. Once variables
have been identified and defined,
experiments are conductable.
also known as
associational
research
INTRODUCTION
AND
PURPOSE

43.
.
also known as
associational
research

44.
To describe
Co-relationships that
exist between two or
more variables
(Explanatory Design)
also known as
associational
research

45.
To identify relationship
that can be useful in
making predictions.
(Prediction Design)
To describe
Co-relationships that
exist between two or
more variables
also known as
associational
research

46.
.

47.
.
If we know vocabulary and school learning are correlated
We can predict that students with better vocabularies will usually learn
more than students with limited vocabularies.

48.
is considered type of
observational research as
nothing is manipulated by
the researcher
To describe
Co-relationships that
exist between two or
more variables
also known as
associational
research
To identify relationship that
can be useful in making
predictions.

49.
is considered type of
observational research as
nothing is manipulated by the
researcher
It often conducted as exploratory
or beginning research.
To describe
Co-relationships that
exist between two or
more variables
also known as
associational
research
To identify relationship that
can be useful in making
predictions.

50.
is considered type of
observational research as
nothing is manipulated by the
researcher
In other words, we can not make
statements concerning cause and effect
on the basis of this type of research.
It often conducted as
exploratory or beginning
research.
To describe
Co-relationships that
exist between two or
more variables
also known as
associational
research
To identify relationship that
can be useful in making
predictions.

51.
To discover
c0-relationships
among two or
more variables
To describe the
relationship; to predict
one variable from the
other .
is considered type of observational research
as nothing is manipulated by the
experimenter or individual conducting the
research
Also known as
associational
research
In other words, we can not make
statements concerning cause and
effect on the basis of this type of
research.
Is often conducted as exploratory or
beginning research. Once variables
have been identified and defined,
experiments are conductable.
INTRODUCTION
AND
PURPOSE

52.
CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS.

53.
CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS
.
To determine the degree of relationship between two
variables, researchers calculate a statistic called a
correlation coefficient.
( represented pictorially by a scattergram )

54.
.
Scattergrams

55.
.
high scores on one are associated with high scores on the
other, and that low scores on one are associated with low
scores on the other.

56.
.
high scores on the first thing are associated with low scores
on the second or low scores on the first are associated with
high scores on the second.

57.
.

58.
.

59.
.
Correlational Research Design
1.Variables whose relationship is to be explored are
identified and clarified.

60.
.
2. Questions or hypotheses are stated
Correlational Research Design

61.
.
Correlational Research Design

62.
.
Correlational Research Design
3. A sample is selected – preferably 30 or more

63.
.
Correlational Research Design
3. A sample is selected – preferably 30 or more

64.
.
Correlational Research Design
4. Measurements are obtained from each of the sample
members on each of the variables being explored.

65.
.
Correlational Research Design
5. Correlations between and among variables are computed to
determine degrees of relationship.

66.
.
Example of research

67.
.
Example of research

68.
.
Example of research

69.
What is survey ?
 Method of gathering information
 Measurement tools used in research to collect data
 Measurement procedures that involving respondents
by asking and answer the questions given
 Types of survey :
a) Questionnaire

70.
Type of survey
Questionnaire
 Consist of a series of questions & other
prompts
 Usually the items used are essay or
agree/neutral/disagree style

71.
Questionnaire
Open-ended questions Closed-ended questions
 Question ask respondent to
formulate their own
answer/opinions
 Useful for descriptive study
 Respondent pick an answer from
given answer option
 4 types of scales response:
 Dichotomous – 2 options
 Nominal – polytomous –
more than 2 unordered
options
 Ordinal-polytomous – more
than 2 ordered option
 Bounded (continuous) –
respondent is presented
with a continuous scale

72.
Definition of closed – ended questions
 Dichotomous – The questions that only have two possible answer ( Yes/No),
(Agree/Disagree) or (True/False)
 Nominal – Polytomous – The questions that have more than two
unordered answer (Education level)
 Ordinal – Polytomous – The questions that have more than two ordered
answer ( Answer has meaning = Rating scales from lowest
to highest/highest to lowest )
 Bounded (continuous) – Questions should flow logically from the least
sensitive to the most sensitive

73.
Dichotomous questions Ordinal Questions
 What is your household
annual income?
1 Less that $5,000
2 $5,000 to $9,999
3 $10,000 to $14,999
4 $15,000 to $19,999
5 $20,000 to $29,000
6 $30,000 to $39,999
7 $40,000 to $49,000
8 $50,000 to $75,000
9 Over $75,000

74.
11. What is your education
level?
1 - High School or lower
2 - Some College
3 - College Graduate
4 - Some Graduate School
5 - Master's Degree
6 - Doctorate
Nominal Questions

75.
Example journal
 Journal using questionnaire
 Effectiveness of ICT Integration in Malaysian Schools: A
Quantitative Analysis by Ghavifekr Simin and Ibrahim Mohammed
Sani, (2015,August 8) Faculty of Education, University of Malaya.

76.
Interviews
Face to face
Telephone
Video – conferencing

77.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Can be developed in short
period of time
 Cost are effective and low
 Capable of collecting data
from large number of
respondents
 May not accurate/honest
answer given by respondent
 Survey question answer
options could lead to unclear
data

78.
Selecting the Survey Method
 There are 6 criteria of decisions:
1. Population issues
2. Sampling issues
3. Question issues
4. Content issues
5. Bias issues
6. Administrative issues

79.
Population
issues
• Can population be enumerated?
• Is the population literate?
• Are there language issues?
• Cooperation from respondents
• Demographic restrictions
Sampling
issues
• What data is available?
• Respondents availability?
• Respondents target
• Can all members of population be
sampled?

80.
Question
issues
• What type of questions can be
asked?
• Level of difficulties?
• Will lengthy questions be asked?
Content
issues
• Respondent knowledge about the
issues asked?

81.
Bias issues
• Can social desirability be avoided?
• Can false respondents be avoided?
Administrative
issues
• Costs
• Facilities
• Time
• Personnel

82.
.