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ELTA Journal: An International & Interdisciplinary Journal
of the ELT Practice & Research
ISSN 2334-9662 (Online)
ELTA – English Language Teachers’ Association
Nemanjina 28, 11000 Belgrade
Serbia + 381 (0) 63 210 460 + 381 11 36 11 644 ext. 110
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Editor-in-Chief:
Maja Jerković, Vocational Medical School, Zrenjanin, Serbia
Co-editor:
Olivera Ćatić, MA student of Lifelong Learning, Aarhus University,
Copenhagen, Denmark
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Serbia
Website:
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The journal is published annually.

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Editorial ELTA Journal
ELTA, teachers' association in Serbia is proud to present the second issue of ELTA Journal.
In this first issue, last December, we presented the ideas that have shaped the creation of
ELTA Journal and, this year, we would like to introduce new ideas that have guided us in
developing this issue.
Our aim was to connect research and practice and to present some theoretical
considerations in the field of ELT. Our journal is blind peer-reviewed, allowing our authors to
have their articles rechecked, reevaluated and inspected by unbiased experts.
Carefully selected articles that we have prepared for you in this issue are written by
teachers, associate professors and researchers in the ELT field. For some authors this is
another way of reflecting on their practice and, for others, this is a form of teacher
development.
We are particularly proud that, as in the previous issue, our contributors are both domestic
and international, and tackle interesting research areas in their studies in theoretical
discussions. Our readers might be interested in an article by Radmila Palinkašević on a very
current topic of bilingualism and its advantageous and disadvantageous effects on cognition
and third language acquisition. Join another one of our colleagues Brankica Bojović in her
exploration of the rich experience of translating metaphors from SL to TL and vice versa, and
her use of Newmark’s translating methods in her classroom practice with students. Our
contributor from a Tribhuvan University in Nepal, Pramod Kumar Sah, gathered and
analysed data on how the undergraduate students in China, through their peer interactions,
mediate understanding about the new language introduced to them and how they develop
language competence. See what the result was of the joint study of Aleksandra Oletić from
Stockholm University and Nina Ilić from University of Novi Sad on levels of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivations to learn English as a foreign language among high school and
university students. Ali Erarslan and Devrim Hol explored language interference and transfer
of L1 into L2 when students do a translation test, while a UK freelancer Willy Cardoso
shared with us his consideration of how teaching is a form of artistry, stressing the

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importance of teacher intuition, and value of inquiry and collective engagement. Zorana
Vasiljević will familiarize you with collocation studies in corpus and applied linguistics and
offer suggestions for making criteria for the selection of target collocation, and developing
activities that help students learn them and use them autonomously. Last, but not least,
ELTA’s known contributor, Nina Kisin, discussed the ways of teaching business English
vocabulary which is a rich source of new terminology in English and used around the world.
The Editorial team would like to thank all the people who contributed to this issue and our
former Editor-in-Chief, Ms Marija Ivanović, who was also among the initiators of ELTA
Journal.
We owe much gratitude to eminent professors and colleagues who reviewed the articles
and, of course, to our contributors whose ideas will help advance the EFL research and the
teaching practice.
We hope you enjoy reading this issue and we look forward to receiving your feedback and
article contributions for our next issue.
Yours faithfully,
ELTA Journal Editorial Team

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Table of Contents
1. Language Interference on English: Transfer on the Vocabulary, Tense and reposition
Use of Freshmen Turkish EFL Learners by Ali Erarslan and Devrim Hol
2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation for Learning English as a Foreign Language by
Aleksandra Oletić and Nina Ilić
3. Mediation in Peer Interaction among Chinese EFL Learners by Pramod Kumar Sah
4. Teaching Collocations in a Second Language: Why, What and How? By Zorana
Vasiljević
5. Strategies of Metaphor Translation by Brankica Bojović
6. The Influence of Bilingualism on Cognition and Third Language Acquisition by
Radmila Palinkašević
7. Developing Artistry in Teaching by Willy Cardoso
8. Teaching and Learning Financial English Vocabulary by Nina Kisin

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Language Interference on English:
Transfer on the Vocabulary, Tense and
Preposition Use of Freshmen Turkish
EFL Learners
by Ali Erarslan, Pamukkale University, Turkey
and
Devrim Hol, Pamukkale University, Turkey
Abstract
In this study, the degree to which Turkish EFL learners make use of L1 transfer was examined in terms of
vocabulary use, use of prepositions and the use of Simple Present Tense. The study was conducted by having
participants perform a translation task and take a translation test. Results showed that most L1 interference took
place in the use of prepositions and vocabulary following it. Participants showed more signs of transfer while they
were making guesses on the meaning of given vocabulary items, phrases or sentences. The least rate of L1
transfer was observed in the use of Simple Present Tense.
Key words: L1 transfer, language interference, cross-linguistic influence, errors
Apstrakt
U ovom radu ispitaćemo u kojoj meri turski učenici stranog jezika koriste transfer maternjeg jezika po pitanju
upotrebe vokabulara, predloga i sadašnjeg vremena (The Simple Present Tense). Studija je izvedena tako što su
učesnici imali prevod kao zadatak i tako što su radili test na kome su imali prevod. Rezultati pokazuju da se
većina transfera iz maternjeg jezika dešava pri upotrebi predloga, a zatim pri upotrebi vokabulara. Znaci transfera
kod učenika su uočljiviji kada su učesnici pogađali značenja datog vokabulara, fraza i rečenica. Najmanji transfer
maternjeg jezika je primećen pri upotrebi sadašnjeg vremena (The Present Simple Tense).
Ključne reči: L1 transfer, transfer jezika, među-lingvistički uticaj, greške
1. Introduction
The nature and extent of the influence of
native language (L1) on L2 learning
process have been debated in ESL and
EFL contexts in the field of Second
Language Acquisition (SLA) over the past
four decades. Though there have been
various discussions related to what
"transfer" is or not, one of the most
accepted definitions of the term "transfer"

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is made by Odlin (Odlin, 1989) since this
definition is regarded as broad enough to
include different viewpoints related to
“transfer". According to Odlin (Odlin, 1989,
pg 27): "transfer is the influence resulting
from similarities and differences between
the target language and any other
language that has been previously (and
perhaps imperfectly) acquired”. Transfer is
also known as L1 interference, linguistic
interference or cross-linguistic influence.
First language “interference” and “transfer”
are sometimes used interchangeably and
sometimes as two different terms.
Interference is the automatic transfer, due
to habit, of the surface structure of the first
language onto the surface of the target
language(Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1982).
Lott (Lott, 1983, p. 256) defines
interference as ‘errors in the learner’s use
of the foreign language that can be traced
back to the mother tongue’. As Lott (Lott,
1983) suggests, by analyzing the students'
errors, teachers can begin to attribute a
cause to an error with some degree of
precision and find out whether, for
example, mother tongue interference, or
teaching techniques, or problems inherent
in the target language are the major cause
of their students’ errors. Additionally, Ellis
(Ellis, 1994) refers to interference as
‘transfer’, which he says is 'the influence
that the learner’s L1 exerts over the
acquisition of an L2'. He argues that
transfer is governed by learners’
perceptions about what is transferable and
by their stage of development in L2
learning. In learning a target language,
learners construct their own interim rules
(Selinker, 1971, Seligar, 1988 and Ellis,
1994) with the use of their L1 knowledge,
but only when they believe it will help them
in the learning task or when they have
become sufficiently proficient in the L2 for
transfer to be possible. In fact, the
difference between the terms “interference”
and “transfer” comes from the similarity or
the difference in the structures of the two
languages. According to Ellis (Ellis, 1994)
two languages having distinct linguistic
structures may result in a high frequency of
errors in the target language which in turn
indicates an interference of L1 on L2.As
suggested by Gao (Gao, 2013), the learner
who comes in contact with a foreign
language may resort to his/her native
language features to replace those
difficulties in the target language.
One of the most important changes in
second language researches has been the
issue of “errors”. Traditionally, learners’
producing an ill-formed structure in target
language was seen negatively and thus the
teachers needed to correct such ill-formed
structures as soon as possible. Among
different methods in second language
teaching, behaviorist theory views errors
as a part of habit formation and they

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should be corrected immediately in order
not to be fossilized (Griffiths,2008).
However, some recent methods regard
errors as an indicator of actual acquisition
process in action (Yule, 1996, James,
1998).According to Harmer (2003), errors
are part of the students’ interlanguage,
which is a developmental area of the
learners and changes continuously until
the learners become proficient in the
language. Historically, in the 1950s and
1960s, it was considered that by
comparing and contrasting the structures
of L1 and the target language, errors would
be easily predicted with the error analysis
which saw a reaction in the 1970s claiming
that the L2 was learned in the same way
as the L1, and independently of it; however
currently it is accepted that transfer occurs,
but in a more complex way and it is not
regarded as the source of errors only
(Benson, 2002). As suggested by Benson
(Benson, 2002), transfer can be facilitative
(positive transfer), or transfer can result in
avoidance if the structure of the target
language does not exist in L1 and it can
lead to different rates of development
(p.68). Additionally, another phenomenon
regarding L1 influence is the effect of L2
proficiency. The relationship between L2
proficiency and its effect on transfer is
listed by Jarvis (Jarvis, 2000, p.246,247)
as:
1. L1 influence decreases with
increasing L2 proficiency.
2. L1 influence increases with
increasing L2 proficiency.
3. L1 influence remains constant
with increasing L2 proficiency.
4. L1 influence ultimately
decreases, but nonlinearly.
5. L1 influence ultimately increases,
but nonlinearly.
6. L1 influence ultimately never
decreases nor increases, but
its presence continually fluctuates
as L2 proficiency increases.
Arguments related to the term "transfer"
mainly focus on "errors"; thus, all these
views raised another important question:
what is the distinction between errors and
mistakes? According to Ellis (Ellis, 1994),
an error takes place when the deviation
arises as a result of lack of knowledge and
he views mistakes as the result of
problems that prevent learners from
accessing their knowledge of a target
language rule and cause them to fall back
on some alternative, non-standard rule that
they find easier to access. Ellis (Ellis,
1994) also refers to errors as gaps in the
knowledge of the learners, which assumes
that the learners ‘system of knowledge is
the source of the errors. Thus, errors are
considered systematic and occur
repeatedly. On the other hand, according
to Corder (1967, cited by Ellis 2008), a

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‘mistake’ is a deviation in learner language
that occurs when learners fail to perform
their competence. Within this point of view,
mistakes as randomly occurring slips,
unlike errors, are regarded as an indicator
of performance.
It is assumed that the learner’s mother
tongue (MT) will positively or negatively
affect his learning a foreign language in
second language acquisition (SLA). When
the learner’s mother tongue and target
language are similar, the native language
will actively aid foreign language in
learning that is in case of similarities
between the native language and target
language, the transfer functions positively,
while in case of differences, it functions
negatively. Considering that Turkish
language belongs to the Altaic branch of
the Ural-Altaic family of languages and
English is a West Germanic language of
Indo European family of languages, most
learners are assumed to transfer linguistic
structures in a negative way because of
the distance between these two languages.
Through the language learning process,
learners appear to rely on their mother
tongue (L1) considering L1 facilitates L2
learning in that both languages have
similarities with each other. However,
these learners usually make use of at
least three domains in terms of linguistic
knowledge while acquiring the target
language as (1) the L2-input in a natural
L2 speaking or classroom based learning
environment (2) the structures of their
native language (L1); and (3) innate
linguistic knowledge 7.
Learners appear to accumulate structural
entities of English, but demonstrate
difficulty in organizing this knowledge into
appropriate, meaningful structures and
there seems to be a significant gap
between the accumulation and the
organization of the knowledge. When
writing or speaking in English, the target
language (L2), Turkish students seem to
rely on their Turkish language (L1)
structures to produce written or spoken
pieces. Thus, with this aim in mind, based
on the learners' level of English, this study
seeks answer to the following research
question:
1- Based on language levels of students in
English (elementary, pre-intermediate and
intermediate), how does L1 transfer affect
the use of English in terms of
a. Vocabulary
b. Prepositions
c. Tense (Present Continuous
Tense instead of Simple
Present Tense)?
This study aims to investigate the effects of
Turkish language on students’ production
of English; transfer on vocabulary, tense

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and preposition use of students at a state
university in Turkey.
2. Method
This research study was primarily designed
as a descriptive study and therefore adopts
a quantitative approach. In line with the
approach, survey methodology was used
to obtain the opinions of participants.

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3. Setting and Participants
This study was conducted at a state university aiming to explore the degree to which L1
transfer was evident in producing vocabulary, tense and prepositional items in English. In the
research, the degree of L1 transfer on vocabulary, preposition and tense was evaluated
separately depending on the students’ level of English. In the study, in order to investigate
how L1 transfer was evident in English, 323 participants participated in the study at a state
university in Turkey. The participants were randomly selected based on their language levels
in English as Elementary, Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate level. The students receive
English education in these levels under a program run by School of Foreign Languages and
all the students use the same course book within the same framework. It has been an
advantage for this study that using the same book in all English levels eliminates the risk of
language transfer due to material use provided to students.
Table 1. Distribution of participants and their language levels (N=323)
General characteristics of the participant English preparatory class students were
investigated in terms of their age, gender, and their level of English. Of the 323 students 255
(29 %) were between the age of 17-20 and 68 (21,1% ) were between the age of 21-25.
Additionally, 216 (66,9%) were female and 107 (33,1 %) were male. As for the participants’
level of English, nearly half of the participants (46,4 %) were Elementary level students, 27,6
% were pre-intermediate and 26 % were in intermediate level.
f %
Age 17-20 255 78.9
21-25 68 21.1
Total 323 100.0
Gender Female 216 66.9
Male 107 33.1
Total 323 100.0
Lang. Level Elementary
Pre-intermediate
150
89
46.4
27.6
Intermediate 84 26
Total 323 100.0

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4. Data Collection
Initially, before constructing the items in
the data collection tool in the form of a
knowledge and translation test, a total of
90 students' assignments in their writing
course were randomly English and
analyzed for each level. The written
assignments were collected and analyzed
in the second semester to ensure that they
all had acceptable knowledge and skills in
L2 writing. When the academic year starts,
students in preparatory classes are
exposed to writing exercises embedded in
the core language course in the first three
months until the end of first semester. In
the second term, writing course starts and
they learn writing based on “process
approach”. During the academic year, the
students are taught paragraph writing and
paragraph types first, and then essay
writing and essay types (Erarslan, 2011).
Students' writing assignments both in the
paragraph and in essay format were
analyzed based on their transfer errors.
After the analysis, their transfer errors
were categorized and it was seen that
three major errors were found to be in the
vocabulary, tense and preposition use.
Thus, for the actual study, based on their
writing assignments, three parts were
chosen as vocabulary, tense and
preposition use. For the vocabulary and
preposition parts, the items were chosen
from the students' writings. Moreover,
those which were added for the actual
study were chosen based on "The
General Service List (GSL)"(West,
1953), which contains the most widely
useful 2,000 word families in English.
West (1953, cited in Fox, 1979) used a
variety of criteria to select these words,
including frequency, ease of learning,
coverage of useful concepts, and stylistic
level. In addition, Academic Word List
(AWL), containing 570 words which
appear with high frequency in academic
textbooks across a range of disciplines
was used as the vocabulary criteria. The
AWL was created so that this word list
could be used by students to learn the
words most needed to study at universities
(Coxhead, 2000).
After constructing the test items, to collect
data, a form was developed having two
parts: a translation part and a test part
where the participants were provided 20
vocabulary items, 10 tense items and 10
preposition items in each part. In both
parts, students were provided the same
vocabulary, tense and preposition items.
All our participants were asked to
complete a translation task having 20
vocabulary items, which mainly consisted
of phrasal verbs, collocations and

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compound words our students find difficult
to understand, 10 phrases with
prepositions and 10 sentences that require
the use of Simple Present Tense. The
participants were asked to translate these
items into English. In this task another
important point was that the participants
were provided with two columns. They
were asked to write their translations to
the column with the heading “I know” if
they were definitely certain about their
response and they were asked to write
their translation to the column with the
heading “I guess” if they were not certain
about their response but guessed that it
should be such. The aim was to find out
the rate of transfer occurred in guesses
and in definitely known items. Transfer
items in the “I know” column would be
interpreted as mistakes; whereas, the
ones in the “I guess” column would be
interpreted as transfer errors.
Immediately after the transfer task,
participants were asked to take a
translation test. In this test, the same items
in the first part were asked, however, this
time participants were provided with a
correct translation and a literal translation
of the items in the form of multiple choice
items. Participants were asked to identify
the choice they thought was the correct
alternative. The aim of this test was to find
out whether input would make any change
in the rate of transfer items, if yes, in what
way.
5. Procedure
The study was conducted in a state
university in Turkey among students who
have one year intensive English
preparatory education. It was conducted in
the first thirty minute of the course and
participants were given brief information
about what the aim of the study was and
what they had to do while doing the tasks.
They were specifically asked to write
whatever they think as the English
equivalents of the provided phrases in
Turkish. In order to make the participants
feel free in their responses, they were
asked not to write their names on any of
the tasks given. The study was conducted
in elementary, pre-intermediate and
intermediate level classes at the same
time.
6. Data Analysis
In analyzing the collected data, any kind of
literal translation, either partial or
complete, was accepted as language
transfer in the vocabulary section. In the
preposition section, any kind of literal
translation, absence of preposition where
needed, use of unnecessary preposition in
order to replace a suffix in Turkish, and
finally, any kind of word transformation to
replace a suffix in Turkish was accepted
as language transfer. In the tense section,

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any use of Present Continuous Tense or
attempt to use Present Continuous Tense;
that is, using auxiliary verb in front of the
main verb without adding the –ing or
adding –ing without using ‘auxiliary' in front
of the main verb was accepted as
language transfer.
The translation tasks and translation tests
were evaluated separately. In the
translation task, each transfer item the
total number of questions answered in
each section was identified. The same
procedure was followed in the preposition
section, tense section, “I know” section
and “I guess section”. So, after each
analysis, it was possible to see how many
questions were answered by the
participant in each section and how many
of them were transfer items. The
translation test was also checked in the
same way. The number of answers given
by the participant to each section and the
transfer items in each section were
carefully marked.
The results obtained from the research
have been analyzed separately and
calculated according to their percentage of
transfer.
7. Results
1) Vocabulary Transfer of Elementary, Intermediate and Intermediate Level Students
a) Vocabulary Transfer of Elementary Level Students
Table 2. Transfer Evident in Vocabulary Items in Elementary Level of English
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
5,69 11,83 35%
At first, the data obtained were analyzed in terms of vocabulary, tense and preposition based
on the participants' level of English. Elementary level students' responses in the tests related
to vocabulary items analyzed and students answered an average of 11,83 vocabulary items
out of 20 questions in translation part. Among vocabulary items answered, the transfer
evident in vocabulary was 5,69 in average which was 35 % in total. Table 2 shows that
students at university apply their knowledge from Turkish language to English in vocabulary
choice which are mostly irrelevant to their English equivalents. Among vocabulary items
where Turkish transfer was intensively applied are “Mutfak Robotu” which means “Food

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Processor” in English. However, this word was mostly translated as “Kitchen Robot” as a
direct translation and “Spor Ayakkabı” meaning “trainers” transferred as “Sports Shoes” by
the students. Additionally, it is possible to say that the same case is true for “Köpek Balığı”
meaning “Shark” in English. A majority amount of students translated it as “Dog Fish” just
focusing on its Turkish equivalent word by word. One possible reason for such negative
transfer is that words such as “köpek balığı” and “spor ayakkabı” are compound words in
Turkish and students prefer using a compound translation in English. Their limited exposure
to English may also be another reason for their incorrect transfer of vocabulary choice as
they may still fail in mastery of target language.
b) Vocabulary Transfer of Pre-Intermediate Level Students
Table 3. Transfer Evident in Vocabulary Items among Pre-Intermediate Level Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
3,19 14,56 21,90%
When compared to transfer evident in vocabulary items according to Elementary Level of
English(see Table 2.), transfer in vocabulary items according to Pre-intermediate level of
English, students answered an average of 3,19 vocabulary items out of 20 questions in
translation part. Among vocabulary items answered, the transfer evident in vocabulary was
14,56 in average which was 21,90 % totally. Table 3 shows that Pre-intermediate level
students show less tendency to use Turkish vocabulary knowledge compared to Elementary
students. The total amount of vocabulary transfer is 35% according to Elementary Level of
English while it is 21,90 % totally according to Pre-intermediate level of English. However,
the results here show that vocabulary transfer is still evident in both groups.
c) Vocabulary Transfer of Intermediate Level Students
Table 4. Transfer Evident in Vocabulary Items among Intermediate Level Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
4,21 14,86 28,33%

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In terms of transfer in vocabulary items according to intermediate level of English, students
answered an average of 4,21 vocabulary items out of 20 questions in translation part. Among
vocabulary items answered, the transfer evident in vocabulary was 14,86 in average which
was 28,33 % totally. Table 4 shows that intermediate students make more use of Turkish
vocabulary knowledge than Pre-intermediate level students and less transfer compared to
elementary students.
One of Studies related to L1 (Turkish) transfer to L2 was conducted by Erkaya (Erkaya,
2012) and in her study in which written texts of the participants in terms of errors were
analyzed, it was the word choice appeared with the highest percentage as transfer error the
students applied using their L1 knowledge. Additionally, according to another study focusing
on written essays of the adult beginner Turkish students conducted by Kırkgöz (Kırkgöz,
2010), learners had mainly two types of errors as interlingual and intralingual errors and she
suggests that one of major sources of student errors was result of L1 transfer. In her study,
the words transferred from Turkish did not prevent the comprehension as Erkaya (Erkaya,
2012) mentions. Similarly, according to Karakas (n.d), Turkish students had serious
problems in generating words and combining them into phrases and finally into sentences,
which might range from a very simple to highly complex ones.
2) Preposition Transfer of Elementary, Intermediate and Intermediate Level Students
a) Preposition Transfer of Elementary Level Students
Table 5. Transfer Evident in Preposition Items among Elementary Level Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
3,19 7,61 41%
The most striking result of the study was in the use of preposition in English. Transfer evident
in preposition items according to Elementary Level of English was analyzed and students
answered an average of 3,19 preposition items out of 10 questions in translation part. Among
preposition items answered, the transfer evident was 7,61 in average which was 41 % totally.
Table 5 shows that students in university level apply their knowledge from Turkish language
to English in preposition choices which are mostly irrelevant to their English equivalents. This
result indicates that preposition use is the most problematic part of students’ English learning
process. The reason for this may be that the Turkish equivalents of “in, on, at” in English are
all “-de, and –da” in Turkish. For example, almost all students answered the question “Ayşe

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ile evlenmek” as “marry with Ayşe” in English instead of “marry to Ayşe”. The preposition “ile”
is “with” in English. As a result, when students come across or have to produce a phrase
including “ile” in Turkish translation of an English phrase, they prefer to use it with its Turkish
equivalent. On the other hand, the other most commonly transferred preposition item was
“eve gelmek” for “come home”. In this question, most students again gave its English
equivalent referring to its Turkish translation “come to home”, as it includes -e, -a suffixes
showing direction.
b) Preposition Transfer of Pre-Intermediate Level Students
Table 6. Transfer Evident in Preposition Items among Pre-Intermediate Level Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
1,52 7,07 21,49%
Transfer evident in preposition items according to Pre-intermediate level of English was
analyzed and students answered an average of 1,52 preposition items out of 10 questions in
translation part. Among preposition items answered, the transfer evident was 7,07 in average
which was 21,49 % totally. Table 6 indicates that Pre-intermediate students tend to make
less transfer in preposition items compared to elementary students. It is quite surprising that
while elementary students have the highest amount of transfer in preposition use, the figures
related to pre-intermediate students do not make so much difference compared to
vocabulary and tense items.
c) Preposition Transfer of Intermediate Level Students
Table 7. Transfer Evident in Preposition Items among Intermediate Level Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
1,57 7,36 21,33%
Transfer evident in preposition items among intermediate students was analyzed and
students answered an average of 1,57 preposition items out of 10 questions in translation
part. Among preposition items answered, the transfer evident was 7,36 in average which was
21,33 % totally. Table 7 shows that intermediate students tend to make transfer in

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preposition items equally. However the highest amount of transfer in preposition was seen
among elementary students.
Studies on prepositions show that Turkish students also have overgeneralization from L1
when applying prepositional rules to TL 16. Karakas (n.d) mentions that most prepositional
errors can be explained as an L1 impact as the translation of the preposition encompasses
the meaning of "through" in L1. According to Koban (Koban, 2011), the largest number of
errors consisted in the misuse of prepositions and it may be caused by the fact that the
learners probably learned a particular preposition with one type of verb and later used the
same preposition with similar verbs (p.170).
3) Tense Transfer of Elementary, Intermediate and Intermediate Level Students
a) Tense Transfer of Elementary Level Students
Table 8. Transfer Evident in Tense Items among Elementary Level Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
1,66 8,71 19%
Transfer evident in tense items according to Elementary Level of English was analyzed and
students answered an average of 1,66 tense items out of 10 questions in translation part.
Among tense items answered, the transfer evident in tense items was 8,71 on average which
was 19 % totally. Table 8 indicates that university students who have been learning English
in Elementary Level tend to rely on Turkish knowledge in the use of tense less when
compared to vocabulary items. One of the most challenging items in tense translation was
the ambiguity caused by meaningless responses given by the students. Some papers
included responses such as “I am work post office” as an equivalent of “I work at the post
office”.
b) Tense Transfer of Pre-intermediate Level Students
Table 9. Transfer Evident in Tense Items among Pre-Intermediate Level Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
1,59 8,00 19,87%

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Transfer evident in tense items according to Pre-intermediate level of English was analyzed
and students answered an average of 1,59 tense items out of 10 questions in translation
part. Among tense items answered, the transfer evident was 8,00 in average which was
19,87 % totally. Table 9 indicates that Pre-intermediate students tend to make transfer in
tense items equally with elementary students.
c) Tense Transfer of Intermediate Level Students
Table 10. Transfer Evident in Tense Items among Intermediate Students
Average Transfer Rate Average Test Items
Answered
Total Percentage of
Transfer
1,79 8,43 21,23%
Transfer evident in tense items among intermediate was analyzed and students answered an
average of 1,79 tense items out of 10 questions in translation part. Among tense items
answered, the transfer evident was 8,43 in average which was 21,23 % totally. When
compared to previous groups, Table 10shows that intermediate students tend to make
transfer in tense items mostly. Though the results are nearly same in two other groups, the
highest amount of tense transfer is seen among intermediate students. In theory, it is
expected that the more the students have input in learning a second language, the less they
make L1 interference.
According to the study of Erkaya (Erkaya, 2012), among the transfer errors, the verb tense
errors were not as many as word choice and preposition errors. Similarly, among the errors
identified in Koban’s (Koban, 2011)study, tense errors were listed as the less frequent ones
compared to prepositional and lexical errors, however, Koban (Koban, 2011, p.171) mentions
that “the actual source of most tense errors is interference from the other terms of the
English system, and only rarely from the corresponding Turkish form. The influence of
Turkish is apparent in the second category in which the verbs are marked with -ing for the
progressive aspect”. In fact, although tense choice of the participants focused only at
progressive form and at present form as in our study, as Koban stated (Koban, 2011), the

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influence of Turkish on English is apparent in terms of –ing form in tense use, and for this
reason instead of focusing on other aspects of tenses, this study only focused on –ing
aspect. Similar to our study, Kirkgoz (Kirkgoz, 2010, p. 435) explains based on her study that
“the major source of errors in the tense choice is that for the given situations, simple present
tense is used to express in English language, whereas in Turkish present continuous tense is
employed”. It is true that most state verbs are expressed in Present Continuous tense in
Turkish language, thus most Turkish students have a tendency to say” I am loving you”
instead of “I love you” as the English equivalent.
Figure 1. Comparison of Vocabulary, Preposition and Tense Transfer among language
levels
Figure 2. The Transfer Evident Based on “I Know” and “I Guess” section
Figure 2 shows the amount of transfer items in vocabulary, tense and preposition sections
according to language levels. The table shows the amount of the transferred items based on
participants' choices "I know" or "I guess" indicating that whether they know the English
equivalents of the test items or they guess them. In the ‘I know’ column, Elementary
students' rate of transfer was 29%, Pre-intermediate level was 18, 87%, and the rate of
transfer among intermediate students was 20, 35%.

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In the ‘I guess’ column, the amount of the transfer in the Elementary group was 41%, Pre-
intermediate level was 40%, and the rate of transfer among intermediate students was 49%.
Table 11. Transfer Evident in Vocabulary in Both Translation and Test Item
Vocabulary Preposition Tense
Translation Part 31% 33% 19%
Test Part 40% 46,98% 24%
Table 11shows the percentages of items based on transfer in two parts of the data collection
instrument as “Translation task” and “test item”. The rate of all the item types asked in the
study showed an increase in Test item part. Interestingly, the aim of providing input in the
test item part of the study was to see if the students could find the true equivalents of the
items asked in Turkish. Contrary to the expectations, students used their knowledge of
Turkish in a greater extent in Test item part though they were given the right answer in the
options. Transfer on vocabulary increases by 9% in test item part, the rate of increase was
5% in tense and transfer on preposition increased by 13, 98% in test item part.
8. Conclusion
The major concern of this study has been
to investigate Turkish language
interference, or transfer, on English in
vocabulary, tense and preposition use.
The learners have used some L1
structures to produce appropriate
responses in L2, producing acceptable
equivalents of the Turkish phrases.
However, the learners have also used L1
structures interchangeably with L2
structures, producing inappropriate L2
responses, indicating an interference of L1
on L2. In both translation and test item
phases, the responses which the students
gave reflect failure in producing
appropriate use of the target language
among the provided items. In using L1
structures, the learners have taken some
risks that include guessing of a more or
less informed kind. They have attempted
to use invented or borrowed items,
producing meaningless items in English.
Most linguists agree that transfer is mostly
seen in beginner levels and in less
proficient learners. Studies have shown
that less proficient learners have been
reported to transfer more elements from
their first language than learners who
present higher levels of proficiency
(Cenoz, Hufeisen and Jessner, 2001).
Jiang and Kuehn (Jiang and Kuehn, 2001)

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conducted a study on immigrant students from different language backgrounds. They found
out that beginner to intermediate level students made use of transfer strategies while
advanced students made use of cognitive strategies. Major (Major, 1986) and Wenk (Wenk,
1986) have also found out that beginner level students were more likely to make transfer
errors than more advanced ones. On the other hand, linguists such as Kellerman (Kellerman,
1983) see the errors of beginner level learners as developmental errors and claim that, in
order to be able to make transfer errors learners should have developed awareness in the
language (cited in Ellis, 1994). Our study also shows similar results in that the elementary
level students made use of L1 transfer more than the advanced ones. Additionally, Ringbom
(Ringbom, 2007) views transfer as lexical borrowing. Similarly, Odlin (Odlin, 1989) states that
lexical level transfer in the early stage is seen in the form of borrowing as is seen in our
study.
When the learners fail to recognize the appropriate items in English and interpret
them out of their actual use, they adjust the form of their L2 written responses by using items
which are part of their L1. The analysis of the learners 'translation and test item tasks
revealed the extent to which their L2 responses are affected by their L1, the procedures
aimed to express the phrases which included vocabulary, tense and preposition items and to
see the extent to which and the manner in which L1 knowledge interferes with L2. The L2
errors made are traceable to the learners' L1 and we can conclude that there is definite
interference of L1 on L2.
In the process of attempting to relate L1 to L2, they consider about the similarity or
difference between L2 and L1. The result is that the students rely heavily on their L1
knowledge and respond to items of L2 under known categories in L1, hence a translation
process has taken place. It is seen in this study that the second language learners have
adopted their L1 structures to help them in their L2 translations and option choices.

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References:
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Benson, C. (2002) ‘Key concepts in ELT: transfer / cross-linguistic influence’. ELT Journal
56/1: 68-70.
Bhela, B. (1999). Native language interference in learning a second language : Exploratory
case studies of native language interference with target language usage, 1(1), 22–31.
Jiang, B. & Kuehn, P. (2001). Transfer in the Academic Language Development of Post-
secondary ESL
Students, In R.DeVillar & J. Tinajero (Eds.) Bilingual Research Journal, 25 (4), 653-672.
Cenoz, J, B. Hufeisen & U. Jessner. (2001). Cross-linguistic Influence in Third Language
Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Bristol: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A New Academic Word List, TESOL Quarterly34(2), 213–238.
Dulay, H., Burt, M. & Krashen, S. (1982), Language Two, Oxford University Press, New
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Erarslan, A.(2011). “Perceptions and Attitudes of the Preparatory Class Students towards
the Writing Course and Attitude-Success Relationship in Writing in the School of Foreign
Languages at Pamukkale University.” Unpublished Master's Thesis
Erkaya, R. (2012). Vocabulary and L1 Interference – Error Analysis of Turkish Students ’
English Essays, 36(2), 1–11.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Gao, H. (2013). On Source Language Interference in Interpretation. Theory and Practice in
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Griffiths, C. (2008). Strategies and good language learners. In C. Griffiths (Ed.),Lessons
from good language learners (pp. 83-98). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Harmer, J. (2003). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education
Ionin, T., Zubizarreta, M. L., & Maldonado, S. B. (2008). Sources of linguistic knowledge in
the second language acquisition of English articles. Lingua, 118(4), 554–576.
doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2006.11.012
James, C. (1998). Errors in Language Learning and Use. Exploring Error Analysis. London &
New York: Longman.
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Karakas, A. (1996). No Title. Retrieved from
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Multilingual Matters Ltd.
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Selinker, L. (1971). The Psychologically Relevant Data of Second Language Learning in The
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation for
Learning English as a Foreign Language
by Aleksandra Oletić, Stockholm University / Stockholm, Sweden
Nina Ilić, University of Novi Sad / Novi Sad, Serbia
Abstract
In the last few years, the topic of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has raised a lot of interest in EFL learning.
Intrinsic and/or extrinsic motivation and the correlation between motivation and success in learning a foreign
language have been examined. The goal of this paper is to examine how the self-determination framework (Deci
and Ryan, 2000) for L2 learning motivation extends to a group of Serbian language learners of English. The
focus of our research is on examining intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of Serbian students of English, with the
aim of answering the question whether or not the students are intrinsically/extrinsically motivated and to what
extent. High school students and university students were given the Post-Experimental Intrinsic Inventory test
and the method used for analyzing the results was descriptive statistics. The results obtained show that there are
generally low levels of intrinsic motivation present among both high school and university students. It was
expected that the results for Interest/Enjoyment would be more decisively in favor of university students, but this
was not the case. The differences in motivation are minimal in relation to gender, even though female students
show an increase of intrinsic motivation across the age variable.
Key words: motivation, intrinsic, extrinsic, students
Apstrakt
U poslednjih nekoliko godina interesovanje za temu intrinzične i ekstrinzične motivacije stalno raste u oblasti
učenja engleskog kao stranog jezika. Istražuju se intrinzična i/ili ekstrinzična motivacija i korelacija između
motivacije i uspeha u učenju stranog jezika. Cilj ovog rada je da istraži kako se teorija samoodređenja (Deci i
Rajan, 2000)u okviru motivacije za učenje stranog jezika može primeniti na grupu učenika engleskog jezika iz
Srbije. Naše istraživanje se bavi ispitivanjem intrinzičke i ekstrinzičke motivacije učenika srednjih škola i
studenata engleskog jezika u Srbiji, sa ciljem dobijanja odgovora na pitanje da li su učenici intrinzički/ekstrinzički
orijentisani i u kojoj meri. Učenici srednje škole i studenti su ispitani metodom posteksperimentalnog intinzičkog
inventara ličnosti, a rezultati su obrađeni deskriptivnim statističkim tehnikama. Dobijeni rezultati pokazuju da je
kako kod učenika srednjih škola tako i kod studenata prisutan relativno nizak nivo intrinzičke motivacije.
Očekivalo se da će rezulatati za varijablu Interesovanje/ Uživanje biti u značajnoj meri u korist studenata, ali ovo
nije bio slučaj. Razlike u motivaciji su minimalne kada je u pitanju pol kao nezavisna varijabla, iako ženski
studenti pokazuju malo veću sklonost ka intinzičkoj motivaciji.
Ključne reči: motivacija, intrinzična, ekstrinzična, učenici
1. Introduction
In the last few years, the topic of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation has raised a lot of
interest in EFL learning. The goal of this
paper is to examine how the self-
determination framework for L2 learning
motivation extends to a group of Serbian
language learners of English. The focus of
our research is on examining intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation of Serbian students of
English, with the aim of answering the
question whether or not the students are
intrinsically/extrinsically motivated and to
what extent.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Definition and theories

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In basic terms, motivation can be defined
as the main incentive a person may have
to perform a particular action. Motivation is
what urges people to initiate an action and
to persist in performing it (Topalov, 2011).
As far as student motivation is concerned,
it is based to a great extent on the
students’ subjective experiences, i.e. their
willingness and personal motives to
engage in the learning process (Brophy,
2004). This section will provide an
overview of different theories of motivation,
beginning from its early development under
the influence of behaviorism to more
dynamic current models based on
cognition.
The first theories of motivation were
developed under the influence of
behavioral theory in the 1950’s. At first,
behaviorism emphasized the importance of
human drives and needs. Later, the focus
shifted to reinforcement as the primary
means of shaping behavior (Brophy, 2004).
In the classroom environment, various
reinforcements are available: praise, high
grades, extra points, competitions etc. To
be precise, some behaviorists often talked
about control rather than motivation.
Stimulus control is what reminds learners
that a certain kind of behavior will lead to
reinforcement. If a desired behavior is not
yet accomplished, gradual improvement is
achieved by the means of approximations.
Once it is accomplished, occasional
reinforcement is what preserves it (Brophy,
2004). However, the subsequent phase of
motivation research moved away from the
mechanical interpretation of motivation
within the behaviorist framework.
In the last few decades, more
cognitive approaches to motivation were
developed. They emphasized the
importance of students’ interpretation of
certain events and the role of their beliefs,
emotions and values in achievement
situations. Therefore, motives were no
longer looked for outside, but inside the
individual (Topalov, 2011). The three
important theoretical approaches within the
cognitive framework are expectancy-value
theories, goal theories, and self-
determination theory.
Expectancy-value theories treat
behavior as a function of one’s
expectancies and the value of the goal
toward which one is working. Atkinson’s
achievement motivation theory holds that
motivation to succeed depends on the
motives, one’s estimate of the degree of
probability of succeeding in the task, and
the degree to which one values the
potential rewards (Topalov, 2011).
According to this theory, the two essential
parts of achievement motivation are
motivation to succeed and motivation to
avoid failure (Brophy, 2004). As opposed
to achievement theory in which people
orient themselves toward the future,
attribution theory explains how people
interpret their past behavior. Furthermore,
attribution theorists focus on how those
explanations influence people’s future

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motivation and performance (Topalov,
2011).
Goal theories are oriented towards
the goals which individuals seek to fulfill.
Two theories have been particularly
influential in the last two decades: goal-
setting theory and goal orientation theory.
The former stresses the importance of goal
existence for purposeful action and
motivation, whereas the latter deals with
success and achievement in the
classroom. There are two tendencies that
can be distinguished in relation to goal
orientation: learning goal and performance
or ego-involvement goal (Topalov, 2011).
Finally, self-determination theory
was created by Edward Deci and Richard
Ryan. According to self-determination
theory, motivated actions can be either
self-determined or controlled. Self-
determined actions are those which
individuals freely choose and want to do.
This means that the only incentive for
undertaking this kind of actions comes
from one’s enjoyment and interest in a
particular activity i.e. intrinsic motivation.
On the other hand, controlled actions are
those which are determined by an external
force. Therefore, they come as a result of
extrinsic motivation (Brophy, 2004).
2.2. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is related to an internal
wish to do something. Deci (1975:23)
defines intrinsically motivated activities as:
“the ones for which there is no apparent
reward except the activity itself.” Self-
determination theory puts emphasis on
three innate psychological needs which
need to be satisfied in order for an
individual to feel intrinsically motivated.
Those needs are: autonomy (in deciding
what to do and how to do it), competence
(abilities and skills by which we manage to
control our environment) and relatedness
(relationships we develop through our
interaction with others). This assumption
has significant implications for students
engaged in the learning process. Namely,
students are more likely to experience
intrinsic motivation in an environment that
promotes the satisfaction of these needs
than in the one which neglects them
(Brophy, 2004). Moreover, according to
some studies, intrinsically motivated
learning tends to be more valuable than
extrinsically oriented one (Deci and Ryan,
2000).
Intrinsic motivation was adeptly
illustrated by the concept of flow,
developed by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
Flow represents the feeling of complete
absorption in the activities which we enjoy.
For an artist, flow is most likely to take
place while creating a certain piece; for a
mathematician, while solving a math
problem. At any rate, whenever it happens,
people lose their sense of time. They stay
focused on the task without letting any
distractions keep them away from what
they are doing (Brophy, 2004).

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On the other hand, those who are
extrinsically motivated perform a certain
action not because they truly enjoy it, but
because of a reward that is available in
their environment (Topalov, 2011).
Extrinsic goals can vary from short-term
goals (good grades, prizes from the
teacher and parents, participation in
competitions, etc) to long-term ones
(possibility of winning scholarships, better
job opportunities, higher social status, etc).
Certain studies carried out in the 1970s
and 1980s showed that rewards can lead
to a decrease in intrinsic motivation among
people who are already doing something
because of their own reasons (Brophy,
2004).
Even though the distinction
between the two types of motivation is still
essential when discussing motivation, the
attitude towards extrinsic motivation has
changed. Today, it is thought that intrinsic
motivation and extrinsic reward can work
together toward motivated learning
(Topalov, 2011). In line with this, Deci and
Ryan (2000) have reconsidered their
original theory of self-determination in
order to include extrinsic motivation. This
reviewed theory claims that even
extrinsically motivated behavior can be
self-determined if the process of
internalization (transformation of external
regulations into internal ones) takes place.
Four types of extrinsic regulation can be
identified in relation to the degree of
internalization. The first type is external
regulation, which is connected to those
actions purely motivated by external
rewards or constraints. Therefore, the
actions are fully controlled. The second
type, introjected regulation, is responsible
for those activities which are slightly more
internalized, in the sense that we have
learned how to behave in an expected
way. If not, we feel guilty, which means
that we no longer need an external factor
which would control our behavior.
However, the mechanisms we have
adopted are in conflict with our sense of
self. The next type of regulation, identified
regulation occurs when an individual
identifies a certain value that s/he has
adopted as important. Finally, integrated
regulation is the most self-determined type
because of the complete integration of
adopted values and one’s sense of self
(Brophy, 2004).

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2.3. Related work
Noels, Clement, and Pelletier (2001)
measured the intrinsic, extrinsic, and
integrative motivation of French students in
a summer immersion course. The
questionnaire administered to the students
measured their perceptions of autonomy
and competence, learning effort,
determination, and reasons for language
learning with their achievement in the
course. They analyzed the connection
between different types of motivation
(hierarchically ordered from extrinsic
motivation and its subtypes as less self-
determined to intrinsic motivation as the
most determined type) and its expected
antecedents and consequences. The
variables they chose were students’
perception of autonomy and English
competence compared with their
persistence in English studies (their
intention to continue their studies), and
motivation (the effort they exerted for
studying language).
They hypothesized that perceived
autonomy and competence were the
antecedents of motivation and that
persistence in learning, motivation in
learning, and that final grades were the
consequences. In their research, extrinsic
and identified regulations were endorsed to
a larger degree than intrinsic motivation
and introjected regulation. Their findings
suggest that amotivation (lack of any, both
extrinsic and intrinsic, goals for learning
(2001, Noel)) is indicative of lack of effort in
learning English. Greater identified
regulation and intrinsic motivation
correlated with higher intensity and
persistence in learning English. In fact,
both Anglophone and non-English learners
of English showed high levels of identified
and external regulation and low levels of
amotivation. French students of English
reported that they were motivated
extrinsically (due to internal or external
pressures) if the learning environment did
not support their sense of autonomy. On
the other hand, the presence of internal or
external pressures did not predict the
amount of effort a student would put into
the learning process. The results of the
research indicate that the amount of effort
is influenced by the proximity of external
punishment/reward, whereas intrinsic
motivation correlates with higher levels of
learning effort.
Bakar, Sulaiman and Rafaai (2010)
explored motivation of Muslim learners of
Arabic. The purpose of the study was to
see if the 7-factor structure of motivational
orientation, which accounted for the
previous study of Anglo-French learners of
English and French (Noels, 2000), would
be appropriate for Muslim learners of
Arabic as well. They used 45 items related
on a 7-point scale. Items were based on
the subscales which were adopted by
Noels et al. (2000): intrinsic motivation-
knowledge, intrinsic motivation-
accomplishment, intrinsic motivation-

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stimulation, extrinsic motivation-external
regulation, extrinsic motivation-introjected
regulation, extrinsic motivation-identified
regulation and amotivation. Specific
religious orientations were also
incorporated into the existing scale.
The results of this study show that a
difference should be made between the
types of motivation, since no correlation
between the subscales was found.
However, the scales that proved to be
important for Muslim learners are not
identical to those found in the previous
study by Noels (2000). Namely, intrinsic
motivation-knowledge, intrinsic motivation-
accomplishment, extrinsic-motivation
identified regulation, amotivation and
religious motivation surfaced as distinctive
orientations. What should be pointed out is
that Religious motivation appeared as a
new dimension as a result of the religious
environment in which the study was carried
out. Since Arabic is the sacred language of
the Muslim religion and Muslim students
have very strong feelings about it, items
which had a religious connotation could no
longer be classified under the initial
subscales, but ensured a special
dimension. Although 5 out of 6 items in this
newly established dimension were initially
part of the Introjected Regulation construct,
students’ religious motives were so
internalized that they surpassed the
intrinsic/extrinsic boundary. All this shows
that social and cultural factors are very
important when it comes to motivation
orientations.
Finally, we would like to mention a
study that comes from another field of
education (Physical Education). The
reason for mentioning it is to show the
distribution and usefulness of Intrinsic
Motivation Inventory (IMI), which we used
in our research. McAuley and Duncan
(1988) claim that IMI is a flexible
assessment tool and that neither inclusion
nor exclusion of one of the factors
negatively affects other dimensions.
Moreover, they state that IMI is a very
useful instrument, because items can be
easily paraphrased in order to adjust to
different types of activities. This allows
researchers to freely moderate the items in
a most convenient way, which suits their
needs and goals. This was the case with
our study as well.
3. Method
3.1. Participants
Two groups of students completed the
questionnaire: the first group consisted of
30 high school students (ages 17 to 18,
average age = 17) and the second group
were 30 third year university students at
the English department of the Faculty of
Philosophy in Novi Sad, Serbia (ages 21-
27, average age = 22). Women comprised
74% of the study’s sample, and men 26%.
Even though the number of female
students is much higher than of male
students, the sample gathered is

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representative of the prototypical
classroom setting in which English is
learned as a second language in Serbia.
3.2. Instrument
The instrument consisted of a set of 23
randomly ordered items of a Post-
Experimental Intrinsic Motivation Inventory
test developed by Ryan in 1982. Each item
belonged to one of the following
subcategories of motivation:
Interest/Enjoyment, Effort/Importance,
Perceived Choice, Value/ Usefulness. We
adapted the instrument by completing the
items in the Value/Usefulness category so
that they would fit the purpose of research
which was to examine the students’
general motivation for learning language.
Students were to select a number on a
scale from 1 to 5 which represented the
extent to which a given statement applied
to them.
3.3.1. Interest/Enjoyment. Seven
items of the questionnaire (1, 8, 12, 17, 20,
21 and 23) belonged to this sub-category,
with two negative statements whose score
was reversed. A high mean score for this
item indicates a strong interest (intrinsic
motivation) for learning activities.
3.3.2. Effort/ Importance. Five
items of the questionnaire (2, 7, 11, 13 and
14) belonged to this sub-category, with two
negative statements whose score was
reversed. A high mean score for this item
indicates a high amount of effort and
degree of perceived importance of learning
English.
3.3.3. Perceived Choice. Five
items of the questionnaire (3, 6, 10, 16 and
18) belonged to this sub-category, with
three negative statements whose score
was reversed.
3.3.4. Value/ Usefulness. Six items
of the questionnaire (4, 5, 9, 15, 19 and 22)
belonged to this sub-category. A high
mean score for this item indicates a high
degree of usefulness and perceived value
(extrinsic motivation) of learning English.
3.4. Procedure
The questionnaire was administered to
university students during regular class
hours. The participants were informed that
the data gathered were anonymous and
used for the purpose of research. Only
their age and gender was collected from
personal information. The questionnaires
were filled out at the students’ own pace,
but the average time of completing the
data sampling was approximately 10
minutes.
For the purpose of this paper, we
used descriptive statistics to quantitatively
describe our results. We measured
standard deviation and the mean and
average value for the student’s answers to
different items of the survey and compared
them across the variables of age and
gender. The results reflect the students’
general attitudes toward learning English
and are to be interpreted as broad

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generalizations rather than definite
descriptions. However, the sample
selected for this study is representative of
the target group in a real-life situation and
thus the descriptions in the following can
be used to pinpoint some tendencies that
may be a possible course of future
research.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Data
Table 1: Responses from all participants
ITEM
Student item responses (%)
Mean SD
1 2 3 4 5
1 3.33 6.67 20 28.33 41.67 3.98 1.09
8 15 18.33 33.33 20 13.33 2.98 1.23
12 8.33 13.33 36.67 16.67 25 3.37 1.22
17 15 10 28.33 21.67 25 3.32 1.35
20 11.7 18.33 36.67 16.67 16.67 3.08 1.22
21 18.3 25 31.67 20 5 2.68 1.13
23 13.3 11.67 41.67 15 18.33 3.13 1.23
Total: 3.22 1.21
2 8.33 16.67 23.33 36.67 15 3.33 1.16
7 5 15 28.33 6.667 45 3.72 1.31
11 11.7 10 31.67 21.67 25 3.38 1.28
13 0 6.67 15 35 43.33 4.15 0.91
14 3.33 20 20 23.33 33.33 3.63 1.22
Total: 3.64 1.18
3 5 5 31.67 40 18.33 3.62 1.02
6 6.67 8.33 11.67 13.33 60 4.12 1.28
10 15 21.67 26.67 10 26.67 3.12 1.40
16 0 8.33 13.33 20 58.33 4.28 0.98
18 13.33 8.33 21.67 11.67 45 3.67 1.45
Total: 3.76 1.23

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4 0 3.33 5 21.67 70 4.58 0.74
5 0 3.33 3.33 15 78.33 4.68 0.7
9 1.67 1.67 10 31.67 55 4.37 0.86
15 3.33 3.33 15 36.67 41.67 4.1 0.99
19 0 1.67 18.33 28.33 51.67 4.3 0.82
22 0 5 16.67 31.67 46.67 4.2 0.89
Total: 4.37 0.83
In table 1, we present the results of all our participants. At first sight, it is apparent that the
subjects are more extrinsically than intrinsically oriented, since the Value/Usefulness
variable is the highest rated one (4.37). What is interesting is that the highest rated item is
the item 5, which means that the majority of students believe they will have a long-term
reward i.e. learning English will help them while traveling abroad. The variable with the
lowest mean is Interest/Enjoyment (3.22). The only two items which were rated lower than 3
(items 8, 21) belong to this variable, which suggests students do not find activities they do in
their English classes especially fun. However, this does not mean that students are not
intrinsically motivated, since the mean of the both of the remaining two variables exceeds
3.5. It should be pointed out that it is important for students to do well (mean 3.64) and that
they consider learning English to be their own choice to a large extent (3.76).
Table 2: Student responses in relation to age
ITEM
Male and female high school
students
Male and female university
students
MEAN SD MEAN SD
1 3.47 1.18 4.5 0.7
8 2.8 1.28 3.17 1.2
12 3.17 1 3.57 1.4
17 3.03 1.43 3.6 1.2
20 3.03 1.2 3.13 1.2
21 2.57 0.96 2.8 1.3
23 3.07 1.21 3.2 1.2
Total: 3.02 1.18 3.28 1.2
2 2.7 1.04 3.97 0.9

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7 3.3 1.29 4.13 1.2
11 2.97 1.28 3.8 1.1
13 3.87 1.02 4.43 0.7
14 3.13 1.15 4.13 1.1
Total: 3.19 1.16 4.09 1
3 3.2 1.05 4.03 0.8
6 3.87 1.23 4.37 1.3
10 2.83 1.27 3.4 1.5
16 3.73 1.09 4.77 0.5
18 2.63 1.28 4.7 0.6
Total: 3.25 1.18 4.25 0.9
4 4.6 0.84 4.57 0.6
5 4.77 0.5 4.6 0.8
9 4.2 0.95 4.53 0.7
15 3.83 1 4.37 0.9
19 4.5 0.72 4.1 0.9
22 4.27 0.89 4.13 0.9
Total: 4.36 0.82 4.38 0.8
What student responses in relation to age (Table 2) show is that there are differences in the
students’ perception of Importance/Effort and Perceived Choice. University students try
harder and it is more important for them to do well in their classes. Moreover, they feel that
learning English is their choice more so than high school students do. This was somewhat
expected due to the fact that the university students participating in the study are
professional learners of English. Having this in mind, it is a bit surprising that one item in the
Perceived Choice variable was rated only 3.4 (item 10), which shows that a certain number
of them feel somewhat obligated to learn English. As far as other two variables are
concerned, the results are virtually the same. It was expected that the results for
Interest/Enjoyment would be more decisively in favor of university students, but this was not
the case.
Table 3: Gender variation in student responses
ITEM
Female student responses Male student responses
MEAN SD MEAN SD

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1 4.07 1.1 3.75 1.03
8 3.02 1.25 2.88 1.17
12 3.34 1.28 3.44 1.06
17 3.39 1.35 3.13 1.32
20 3.09 1.22 3.06 1.2
21 2.73 1.19 2.56 0.93
23 3.2 1.24 2.94 1.2
Total: 3.26 1.23 3.11 1.13
2 3.39 1.11 3.19 1.29
7 3.75 1.28 3.63 1.36
11 3.39 1.28 3.38 1.27
13 4.23 0.82 3.94 1.09
14 3.68 1.2 3.5 1.27
Total: 3.69 1.14 3.53 1.26
3 3.8 0.87 3.13 1.22
6 4.25 1.25 3.75 1.3
10 3.34 1.4 2.5 1.22
16 4.36 0.93 3.94 1.09
18 3.7 1.53 3.56 1.17
Total: 3.89 1.19 3.38 1.2
4 4.64 0.68 4.44 0.86
5 4.64 0.74 4.81 0.53
9 4.41 0.78 4.25 1.03
15 4.14 0.92 4 1.17
19 4.32 0.82 4.25 0.83
22 4.23 0.88 4.13 0.93
Total: 4.39 0.8 4.31 0.89
When it comes to gender variation (Table 3), we can see that women are more motivated
than man regardless of the variable. However, differences between them are minimal.
Therefore, a separate comparison of female high school and female university students and
male high school and male university students was needed (Table 4). Indeed, this analysis
provided some more relevant data. Namely, female university students are much more
motivated than female high school students according to all the variables except Value /

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Usefulness, where the results are the same (mean 4.4). The results of male high school and
university students are more similar.
Female student responses Male student responses
ITEM
High school University
ITEM
High School University
MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD
1 3.4 1.2 4.6 0.56 1 3.6 1.1 4 0.82
8 2.7 1.27 3.3 1.17 8 3 1.3 2.67 0.94
12 2.9 0.89 3.7 1.43 12 3.7 1 3 1
17 2.8 1.44 3.9 1.05 17 3.5 1.3 2.5 1.12
20 2.9 1.11 3.3 1.27 20 3.4 1.3 2.5 0.76
21 2.6 0.97 2.9 1.33 21 2.6 0.9 2.5 0.96
23 3.1 1.24 3.3 1.21 23 3.1 1.1 2.67 1.25
Total: 2.9 1.16 3.6 1.15 Total: 3.27 1.1 2.83 0.98
2 2.7 1 4 0.84 2 2.7 1.1 4 1.15
7 3.3 1.27 4.1 1.17 7 3.3 1.3 4.17 1.21
11 2.8 1.17 3.9 1.17 11 3.3 1.4 3.5 0.96
13 4 0.95 4.4 0.64 13 3.6 1.1 4.5 0.76
14 3.1 1.12 4.2 1 14 3.3 1.2 3.83 1.34
Total: 3.2 1.1 4.1 0.96 Total: 3.24 1.2 4 1.09
3 3.5 0.92 4.1 0.7 3 2.7 1.1 3.83 1.07
6 4.2 1.06 4.3 1.37 6 3.3 1.3 4.5 0.76
10 2.9 1.18 3.7 1.46 10 2.7 1.4 2.17 0.69
16 3.8 1.08 4.8 0.37 16 3.6 1.1 4.5 0.76
18 2.3 1.19 4.9 0.33 18 3.3 1.2 4 1
Total: 3.3 1.09 4.4 0.85 Total: 3.12 1.2 3.8 0.86
4 4.6 0.8 4.7 0.54 4 4.7 0.9 4 0.58
5 4.8 0.43 4.5 0.91 5 4.8 0.6 4.83 0.37
9 4.2 0.75 4.6 0.76 9 4.2 1.2 4.33 0.47
15 3.9 0.83 4.3 0.94 15 3.7 1.3 4.5 0.76
19 4.5 0.74 4.2 0.87 19 4.6 0.7 3.67 0.75
22 4.4 0.8 4.1 0.91 22 4 1 4.33 0.75
Total: 4.4 0.73 4.4 0.82 Total: 4.33 0.9 4.28 0.61
4.2. Discussion
Relatively low results for the
Interest/Enjoyment variable can have
practical applications for professors and
teachers who could use the results as
impetus to modify the existing curriculum.
In particular, because the majority of
students rated English learning activities as
not fun, efforts should be made to make
learning English an inherently pleasant
process by introducing elements of fun to
the curriculum. However, it is a positive
sign that university student answers
indicate that they feel that learning English
is their choice to a greater degree than
high school students. At the same time, it
is somewhat peculiar that they show a very

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high degree of extrinsic motivation. A
possible reason for this could be that they
believe English will form the basis of their
future careers, secure job opportunities,
etc. In fact, one of the highest rated items
of the survey was Item 5, which indicated
that all survey participants judged English
to be useful for traveling abroad.
Even though the distribution of students
across the gender variable is
representative of learning situations in real
life, a possible venue of future research
would be to collect a larger sample of male
student responses in order to get a more
precise picture of the nature and levels of
their motivation.
Paper-and-pencil self-report scales have
become the dominant method in studies of
student motivation. Even though the
structure of the self-report consisting of
numerical scales offers the benefits of
quick administration and inferential
statistical analysis, this method is limited in
focus. Namely, it considers only the
cognitive aspect of motivation and neglects
affect-related factors, possibly due to the
definition of motivation in relation to the
individual’s character (Murphy and
Alexander, 2000). Indeed, the main
criticism of self-report scales is that it treats
motivation as a stable trait because there
are some lines of research that hold that
motivation is a fluid concept that changes
across situations (Hidi et al, 1992). A more
general criticism of self-report
methodologies is that it is based on the
assumption that students have conscious
mental access to motivation, and Hannula
showed that an individual has only partial
access to motivation (2006). A criticism
more specifically related to this research
paper is that it is difficult to use the same
self-report scale to measure motivation
across different age groups due to
developmental changes in students’ self-
concept and motivation. A longitudinal
study of self-motivation may address these
limitations.
The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory imposes
certain limitations, as well. It contains items
such as “I believe/think/… that learning is
important”, which measure values rather
than intentional commitment of the
students. Elliot and Murayama noted that
these items contain complex constructs
whose analysis goes beyond the scope of
the survey method (2008). Another
problem with these items is that different
elements of them are subject to the
individual’s interpretation (Fulmer and
Frijters, 2009). In addition, they observed
that self-reports usually merge the goals of
an activity with the reasons for performing
an activity, even though different students
may pursue the same goal for a different
reason. Furthermore, different researchers
use dissimilar subscales on self-reports to
analyze same domains, and consequently,
there are scales that appear to be
equivalent but measure different domains,

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as well. For example, for assessing
students’ general motivation, Gottfried
examined students’ curiosity, persistence,
and desire to master challenging tasks
(1986), and Harter assessed their
preference for challenge, independent
judgment, and other (1981).
Because there are no tests that have
proven validity and robust measures,
researchers tend to use non-published and
modified self-report scales for assessing
motivation. This causes another issue;
namely, some researchers give a new
name to a previously existing concept,
which adds to terminological confusion and
decreases construct validity of self-report
scales. This is particularly true for the
concepts of self-concept, self-esteem, and
self-efficacy. A very specific criticism of the
numerical scale is that students’ select the
middle value or the neutral response for
various reasons such as indecision,
disapproval, rebellion, and these may not
be related to the construct the item is
testing (Fulmer and Frijters, 2009). To
summarize, the self-report scale method
may be improved by combining it with
alternative methods (some of which are
outlined in Fulmer and Frijters, 2009), but
these are often time-consuming and
significantly reduce the objectivity of the
results.
5. Conclusion
The results of this research show that there
are generally low levels of intrinsic
motivation present among high school and
university students. The results of this
study should be used as indications of
possible tendencies to be researched in
the future and not as exhaustive data. It
was expected that the results for
Interest/Enjoyment would be more
decisively in favor of university students,
but this was not the case. The differences
in motivation are minimal in relation to
gender, even though female students show
an increase of intrinsic motivation across
the age variable.

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References:
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illustration, and application. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 613–628.
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Gottfried, A. E. (1986). Manual for the children's academic intrinsic motivation inventory.
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Hannula, M. S. (2006). Motivation in mathematics: Goals reflected in emotions. Educational
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Harter, S. (1981). A new self-report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the
classroom: Motivational and informational components. Developmental Psychology, 17,
300–312
Hidi, S., Renninger, K. A. & Krapp, A. (1992). The present state of interest research. In K. A.
Renninger, S. Hidi& A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp.
433–447). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
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Inventory in a Competitive Sport Setting: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Research
Quaterly for Exercise and Sport, 60/1, 48-58.
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second language? Motivational orientations and self‐determination theory. Language
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*****
Nina Ilić was born in Novi Sad in 1991. She graduated from the Faculty of Philosophy in Novi Sad
with a degree in English language and literature in June 2014. She applied for master studies at the
same college in October 2014. She is interested in teaching, theoretical and applied linguistics.
Aleksandra Oletić was born in Novi Sad in 1991. She earned her BA in English Language and
Literature at the Faculty of Philosophy in Novi Sad. She enrolled in the Master’s Programme in
Applied Linguistics at Stockholm University in Sweden, where she is pursuing her degree with a focus
on interlanguage development, second language acquisition and inter-cultural pragmatics.

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Mediation in Peer Interaction among
Chinese EFL Learners
by Pramod Kumar Sah, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
Abstract
It is widely accepted that classroom interaction, either between peers and a teacher or among learners facilitates
students’ language learning. An individual learner can benefit from his/her peer(s) who are at higher level of
competence through interaction. The most common proposition of the role of peer interaction is the mediation of
understanding that helps them develop language competence by noticing the gap. This study examines the
strategies adopted by the Chinese undergraduate level learners while mediating the understanding. The data has
been generated from peer interaction while doing language classroom activities. In the interaction, the
participants attempt to mediate the understanding about the language introduced to them and the activity they
were asked to do. The study reveals that Chinese learners of English basically use repetition, first language,
elaboration, paralinguistic signs, and contextual and real life instances in order to mediate their understanding.
Key words: classroom interaction, Mediation of understanding, ZPD, paralinguistic signs
Apstrakt
Široko je prihvaćena činjenica da interakcija u učionici, bilo između vršnjaka ili nastavnika i učenika, olakšava
učenje jezika. Učenik kao pojedinac može kroz interakciju imati koristi od svog vršnjaka koji poseduje viši nivo
jezičkih kompetencija. Najčešća teza o ulozi vršnjačke interakcije je posredovanje u razumevanju koje im
pomaže da razviju jezičke kompetencije primećujući leksičke praznine. Ova studija ispituje strategije koje su
usvojili kineski preddiplomski učenici dok su posredovali u razumevanju. Podaci su generisani iz vršnjačke
interakcije, tokom jezičkih aktivnosti u učionici. U interakciji, učesnici pokušavaju posredovati u razmevanju jezika
kome su izloženi i zadatim aktivnostima. Istraživanje otkriva da kineski studenti engleskog jezika u osnovi koriste
ponavljanje, maternji jezik, elaboraciju, paralingvističke znakove i kontekstualne i životne primere kako bi
pospešili razumevanje.
Ključne reči: interakcija u učionici, medijacija razumevanja, ZPD, paralingvistički znaci
1. Introduction
It has been largely evidenced that it is not
always the teachers to mediate the
understanding among the learners. There are
plenty of spaces where the learners can learn
from other peers. However, the peer who
mediates is believed to have higher level of
competence in language. The mediator uses
different techniques in order to mediate the
understanding. The techniques they use might
differ according to contexts. To be specific, this
study attempts to discover the techniques
Chinese EFL learners use in particular.
2. Defining Mediation
Mediation largely refers to the use of auxiliary
objects or tools to execute an activity efficiently.

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It is the creation and use of artificial auxiliary
means of acting physically, socially and
mentally (Lantolf, 2009). These auxiliary
resources are used to do our tasks with ease.
Such auxiliary tools, in the physical world,
include hammers, shovels, dynamites,
bulldozers, etc. These tools greatly enhance
human capacity to perform tasks with ease and
less effort. In particular, we use shovels to dig
the ground that makes our job easier than
digging with our hand. Here, shovels function
as mediators to perform tasks efficiently.
Identically, such auxiliary tools are also used in
social and physical worlds, in which the tools
such as numbers, graphs, models, drawings
and linguistic symbols are used for efficient
performance. In addition, in communication we
broadly use linguistic symbols while interacting
with other interlocutors (Lantolf and Throne,
2006, Karpov & Hayward, 1998). In this regard,
language is one of the most important symbolic
systems for the mediation of human mental
activity (Lantolf, 2009).
3. Theoretical Orientation
The development of mediation is the core
feature of the socio cultural theory (SCT) of
Vygotsky (1986). The basic principle of SCT is
that all types of human cognitive and emotional
activities that refer to learning a language are
mediated by psychological tools such as
language, signs and symbols (Karpov and
Hayward, 1998). To put it other way, when a
person interacts with other interlocutors and
artefacts, his/her behaviour is mediated by
sign/ symbol system (Swain et al., 2011) and
(Van Lier, 2000).
Following Oheta (2000), SCT believes that
language learners are not only as processers of
input or producers of output, they are rather
speakers or hearers involved in developmental
processes which are realized in interaction .The
rate of mental activity goes higher in humans in
interactions when they enter into with other
members (Lantolf, 2009 and Donato &
McCormick, 1994). Watanbe (2008) seems to
believe the Vygotsky’s (1978) principle that
learning comes from social mediation as he
also states that knowledge and cognition are
built through social interaction. Vygotsky’s SCT
of mind points out that concept appears
through dynamic interaction by shaping and
transforming each other in an interconnected
system. Consequently, language development
is intrinsically a social process (Apple and
Lantolf, 1994). Learning a language supports
cognitive development in a human being since
it mediates interaction between two humans,
one with comparative more knowledge to
support another person (Vygotsky, 1986).
The next view of SCT believes that language
development takes place in the context of
collaborative activities (Vygotsky, 1978). Van
Lier (1996, p.171) supports the thesis as “in
order to learn, a person must be active”.
Language development does not continue as
an unfolding of inborn capacities, rather it is the
transformation of innate capacities as they are
linked to socio culturally constructed
meditational tools (Lantolf and Pavlenko, 1995).
Mediation can be of different types but useful
mediation must be linked to learners’ zone of
proximal development (ZPD) (Lantolf, 2009).
ZPD refers to the gap between the real
developmental level and the potential
developmental level that a learner can achieve

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with support from others with higher level in
course of interaction (Vygotsky, 1978). This
shows that a mediator needs to know what an
individual can acquire with support or additional
mediation. The ZPD is related to the different
characteristics that a learner possesses and
the actual activities the learner undertakes; as
a consequence, what is unachievable alone
becomes achievable (Lantolf, 2009).
4. Peer interaction
Peer interaction is a broadly used technique in
a language teaching and learning that
promotes learning by mediating it. It is only
myth to say learning does not take place in the
absence of experts. Lantolf (2009) advocates
that learning does not always emerge from
expert, it can even occur in the absence of
experts. Dialogues or interaction among
learners can be as effective as the instructional
conversations between learners and experts
(Swain, 1995). In this regard, Lantolf (2009)
claims that learners can scaffold each other
more efficiently by using interactive strategies
that are sensitive to their ZPD.
Stressing on the learning originated through
peer interaction, Olmendo (2003) argues that a
group member in a peer interaction (as a
mediator) can judge the understanding of other
peers and facilitates comprehension. They
produce scaffolding to other peers to enhance
communication and understanding. A language
learner can make the most of the affordances
(Van Lier, 2000) or occasions for learning
(Swain & Lapkin, 1998) that are often made
available by the peers in the interaction.
Olmedo (2003) suggests the following steps for
the participation in the language mediation role
in peer interactions.
a. The mediator must have clue for
the communicative intention of
his/her peer’s speech.
b. The mediator should be able to
monitor the behaviour of the peers
to ensure that they have got the
message.
c. The mediator must opt for a
strategy that ensures real
understanding of the message
conveyed.
d. The mediator should address the
peers that strategy.
5. Related Research
A large amount of research has been
conducted on classroom interaction, most of
which is on a group and pair work. These
studies usually focus on the linguistic
interactions that occur between the participants
of the same group (Long, 1983). Almost all the
studies have evidenced their findings in
reference to Vygotsky’s (1986) theory of
cognitive development that basically refers to
the knowledge constructed through interactions
between individuals within society. The findings
of some research have outlined the general
strategies that the learners use in mediation
while interacting with others.

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Olmedo (2003) based his research to
investigate the strategies adopted by learners
to mediate understanding in English. The study
showed that the learners use different types of
strategies to mediate understanding such as,
translation, paraphrasing, code-switching,
scaffolding by providing verbal cues,
paralinguistic cues, modelling the behaviour,
providing situational cues and interpreting
contextual and situational cues.
With regard to peer’s assistance in learning a
language, Watanbe (2008), in a research on
peer interaction, evidenced that both the higher
and the lower proficiency peers could provide
opportunities for learning when they work
collaboratively. Identically, Storch (2002)
researched four different patterns of interaction
in pair works that include: collaborative,
expert/novice, dominant/dominant and expert/
passive. The findings of the study showed that
language learning takes place more effectively
in pairs when the activity is done collaboratively
or if the interaction is organized between an
expert and novice. Similarly, Swain (2000), in
his study on collaborative dialogue (the
dialogue in which all the learners take active
role and engage with each other’s ideas),
suggested that when learners involve in
collaborative dialogues, they complete a task
and construct their knowledge. Moreover,
Donato’s (1994) research also demonstrated
that the university level students can
collectively build scaffolding for each other’s
performance in a collaborative interaction.
Correspondingly, Gibbons (2003) focused on
the ways how the teachers tend to mediate
between the students’ present linguistic level in
English and their understanding of the content
of the subject through interaction with students.
His findings showed that teachers can mediate
language learning in a number of ways such as
mode shifting through recasting, signifying the
need for reformulation, signalling to learners’
ways to formulate and recontextualising
individual knowledge.
In particular to Chinese context, Gao’s (2010,
p.69) data supports the argument that “the
participants experience of learning English and
strategy use were mediated by their interaction
with peers, although their learning of English
was largely done in isolation”. Cheng (2000) as
cited in Gao (2010) also finds that in learning
process, Chinese students participate in
interaction with other English language learners
at schools and universities in light of the strong
culture for mutual collaboration among other
Chinese learners.
6. Methodology
6.1. Objectives of the study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the
strategies Chinese learners of English adopt to
mediate understanding while taking part in peer
interactions.
6.2. Subjects
The subjects of the study were Chinese
learners of English who were undertaking
undergraduate course in International Business
Communication at the Shanghai University of
International Business and Economics,
Shanghai, China. The study was conducted
while those students were taking a short EAP
course. Three different groups were formed
comprising of lower and higher level learners