1. Audience InvestigationAudience Investigation
Leah FisherLeah Fisher

2. What is an audience?What is an audience?
 An individual or collective group of people whoAn individual or collective group of people who
read or consume any media text Examples:read or consume any media text Examples:
Radio listeners, Television viewers, NewspaperRadio listeners, Television viewers, Newspaper
and magazine readers, Web traffic on web sites.and magazine readers, Web traffic on web sites.
Without audiences there would be no media.Without audiences there would be no media.
Media organizations produce media texts toMedia organizations produce media texts to
make profit – no audience = no profit. The massmake profit – no audience = no profit. The mass
media is becoming more competitive than evermedia is becoming more competitive than ever
to attract more and more audiences in differentto attract more and more audiences in different
ways and stay profitable.ways and stay profitable.

3. Audience theoristsAudience theorists
 Uses and gratifications theory:Uses and gratifications theory: According to uses and gratificationAccording to uses and gratification
theory, we all have different uses for the media and we make choices overtheory, we all have different uses for the media and we make choices over
what we want to watch. In this model the individual has the power and theywhat we want to watch. In this model the individual has the power and they
are able to select the media texts that best suits their needs and theirare able to select the media texts that best suits their needs and their
attempts to satisfy those needs. The psychological basis for this model isattempts to satisfy those needs. The psychological basis for this model is
the Hierarchy of Needs identified by Maslow. The theory suggests that wethe Hierarchy of Needs identified by Maslow. The theory suggests that we
as an audience may use the media for the four following purposes:as an audience may use the media for the four following purposes:
Diversion – Escaping from everyday problems and routine. What do youDiversion – Escaping from everyday problems and routine. What do you
think Morality, Self would go under. Personal Relationships – Using thethink Morality, Self would go under. Personal Relationships – Using the
media for emotional Actualization Creativity, each title of and othermedia for emotional Actualization Creativity, each title of and other
interaction (substituting soap operas for family Problem Solving, Maslow’sinteraction (substituting soap operas for family Problem Solving, Maslow’s
Hierarchy Lack of Prejudice, of needs? Self life. Acceptance of Facts.Hierarchy Lack of Prejudice, of needs? Self life. Acceptance of Facts.
Esteem. Personal Identity – Finding yourself reflected in Esteem,Esteem. Personal Identity – Finding yourself reflected in Esteem,
Confidence, Achievement, Respect of Social Needs Others, Respect byConfidence, Achievement, Respect of Social Needs Others, Respect by
Others. The media, learning behaviour and values. Friendship, Family,Others. The media, learning behaviour and values. Friendship, Family,
Sexual Intimacy, Love. Surveillance – Information which could Belonging.Sexual Intimacy, Love. Surveillance – Information which could Belonging.
Safety Needs be useful for living (weather reports, Safety of Self, Security ofSafety Needs be useful for living (weather reports, Safety of Self, Security of
Employment, Security of Morality, Security of your Family, Security of yourEmployment, Security of Morality, Security of your Family, Security of your
Health, Security of your financial news, holiday bargains) Property. PhysicalHealth, Security of your financial news, holiday bargains) Property. Physical
Needs Breathing, Food, Water, Sex, Sleep.Needs Breathing, Food, Water, Sex, Sleep.

4.  The hypodermic needle theoryThe hypodermic needle theory : Dating from the 1920s and being one of: Dating from the 1920s and being one of
the most simple theories to understand the hypodermic needle theory was thethe most simple theories to understand the hypodermic needle theory was the
first attempt to explain how mass audiences might react to mass media.first attempt to explain how mass audiences might react to mass media.
According to the theory the media is like a syringe which injects ideas, attitudesAccording to the theory the media is like a syringe which injects ideas, attitudes
and beliefs into the audience who as a powerless mass have little choice but toand beliefs into the audience who as a powerless mass have little choice but to
be influenced. But remember that this theory was developed in an age when thebe influenced. But remember that this theory was developed in an age when the
mass media were still fairly new - radio and cinema were less than two decadesmass media were still fairly new - radio and cinema were less than two decades
old. Governments had just discovered the power of advertising to communicateold. Governments had just discovered the power of advertising to communicate
a message, and produced propaganda to try and sway people to their way ofa message, and produced propaganda to try and sway people to their way of
thinking. So this theory suggests that, as an audience, we are manipulated bythinking. So this theory suggests that, as an audience, we are manipulated by
the creators of media texts, and that our behaviour and thinking might be easilythe creators of media texts, and that our behaviour and thinking might be easily
changed by media-makers. It assumes that the audience are passive andchanged by media-makers. It assumes that the audience are passive and
heterogenous. It is used to explain why certain groups in society should not beheterogenous. It is used to explain why certain groups in society should not be
exposed to certain media texts for fear that they will watch or read sexual orexposed to certain media texts for fear that they will watch or read sexual or
violent behaviour and will then act them out themselves .violent behaviour and will then act them out themselves .
 The two-step flow hypothesis:The two-step flow hypothesis: first introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernardfirst introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard
Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in a paper called The Peoples Choice, a 1944Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in a paper called The Peoples Choice, a 1944
study focused on the process of decision-making during a Presidential electionstudy focused on the process of decision-making during a Presidential election
campaign. They were surprised to discover that informal, personal contactscampaign. They were surprised to discover that informal, personal contacts
were mentioned far more frequently than exposure to radio or newspaper aswere mentioned far more frequently than exposure to radio or newspaper as
sources of influence on voting behaviour. This theory asserts that informationsources of influence on voting behaviour. This theory asserts that information
from the media moves in two distinct stages. First, individuals (opinion leaders)from the media moves in two distinct stages. First, individuals (opinion leaders)
who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive thewho pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the
information. Opinion leaders then create their own interpretations of the mediainformation. Opinion leaders then create their own interpretations of the media
content from their reaction to the message. Second, opinion leaders influence orcontent from their reaction to the message. Second, opinion leaders influence or
change the attitudes and behaviours of individuals that they have social contactchange the attitudes and behaviours of individuals that they have social contact
with who take in their opinions and attitudes.with who take in their opinions and attitudes.

5.  The two-step flow hypothesis:The two-step flow hypothesis: first introduced by Paulfirst introduced by Paul
Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in a paperLazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in a paper
called The Peoples Choice, a 1944 study focused on thecalled The Peoples Choice, a 1944 study focused on the
process of decision-making during a Presidential electionprocess of decision-making during a Presidential election
campaign. They were surprised to discover that informal,campaign. They were surprised to discover that informal,
personal contacts were mentioned far more frequently thanpersonal contacts were mentioned far more frequently than
exposure to radio or newspaper as sources of influence onexposure to radio or newspaper as sources of influence on
voting behaviour. This theory asserts that information fromvoting behaviour. This theory asserts that information from
the media moves in two distinct stages. First, individualsthe media moves in two distinct stages. First, individuals
(opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass(opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass
media and its messages receive the information. Opinionmedia and its messages receive the information. Opinion
leaders then create their own interpretations of the medialeaders then create their own interpretations of the media
content from their reaction to the message. Second,content from their reaction to the message. Second,
opinion leaders influence or change the attitudes andopinion leaders influence or change the attitudes and
behaviours of individuals that they have social contact withbehaviours of individuals that they have social contact with
who take in their opinions and attitudes.who take in their opinions and attitudes.

6.  The reception theory:The reception theory: developed by the academic Stuart Hall atdeveloped by the academic Stuart Hall at
Birmingham University in the 1970s. This considered how textsBirmingham University in the 1970s. This considered how texts
were encoded with meaning by producers and then decoded bywere encoded with meaning by producers and then decoded by
audiences. The theory suggests that when a producer constructs aaudiences. The theory suggests that when a producer constructs a
text it is encoded with a meaning or message that the producertext it is encoded with a meaning or message that the producer
wishes to convey to the audience. In some instances audiences willwishes to convey to the audience. In some instances audiences will
correctly decode the message or meaning and understand what thecorrectly decode the message or meaning and understand what the
producer was trying to say, in other instances the audience willproducer was trying to say, in other instances the audience will
either reject or fail to correctly understand the message. Stuart Halleither reject or fail to correctly understand the message. Stuart Hall
identified three types of audience readings of the media: Dominant,identified three types of audience readings of the media: Dominant,
Negotiated and Oppositional. Dominant - Where the audienceNegotiated and Oppositional. Dominant - Where the audience
decodes the message as the producer wants them to do anddecodes the message as the producer wants them to do and
broadly agrees with it. E.g. Watching a political speech andbroadly agrees with it. E.g. Watching a political speech and
agreeing with it. Negotiated - Where the audience accepts, rejectsagreeing with it. Negotiated - Where the audience accepts, rejects
or refines elements of the text in light of previously held views. E.g.or refines elements of the text in light of previously held views. E.g.
Neither agreeing or disagreeing with the political speech or beingNeither agreeing or disagreeing with the political speech or being
disinterested. Oppositional - Where the dominant meaning isdisinterested. Oppositional - Where the dominant meaning is
recognised but rejected for cultural, political or ideological reasons.recognised but rejected for cultural, political or ideological reasons.
E.g. Total rejection of the political speech and active oppositionE.g. Total rejection of the political speech and active opposition

7. Audience in horror filmsAudience in horror films
 The hypodermic needle theory can beThe hypodermic needle theory can be
linked to the horror genre as a concern forlinked to the horror genre as a concern for
many people was that audiences watchingmany people was that audiences watching
horror films would be encouraged to carryhorror films would be encouraged to carry
out such violent behaviour that they see inout such violent behaviour that they see in
films. However this idea has drawnfilms. However this idea has drawn
arguments against it, as it is not provenarguments against it, as it is not proven
that people will act in the same way asthat people will act in the same way as
characters in horror films.characters in horror films.