The document provides information on the structure and function of the major body systems. It begins by defining cells, tissues and organs. It then covers each body system in detail, including the skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, reproductive, urinary/excretory, respiratory, digestive and circulatory systems. For each system it describes the main organs/structures and their functions, as well as some common surgical procedures.
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Chapter 3 anatomy and physiology
1.
2. At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
1. Review the structure, function, activities, and role of cells,
tissues, and organs in the body.
2. Identify and describe the structure and roles of each major
body system
3. Indicate common surgical procedures that involve each
system.
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Reproductive
Urinary and Excretory
Respiratory
Digestive
Circulatory
3.
4. They are the basic
living unit of life
They vary in size,
shape, and
function
They are so small,
microscopic
Within each cell
are still smaller
structures
Functions of the
cell
Living cells come
only from other
living cells
Cells reproduce by
duplication and
division into two
new cells
5.
6. Cell membrane: The outer covering of a cell
that regulates what enters and leaves it.
Cytoplasm: The lining matter of a cell
between the cell membrane and nucleus.
Nucleus: The functional center of a cell that
governs activity and heredity.
Each human cell consists of
three main parts:
7. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) : Stores the information
needed to build proteins essential to restore cell and
also transfers messages about organisms from parent
to offspring.
RNA (ribonucleic acid) : Translates the DNA
messages, and guides the protein making process.
Chromosomes: comprised of DNA, and pass on the
traits of parent cells to new cells.
Tissue: A group of similar cells that
perform a specialized function.
The nucleus contains three important components:
8. A group of similar cells that perform a specialized
function. Four types of tissues:
1. Epithelial tissue: Covers body’s external surface (skin)
and the linings of body cavities (mouth, ears, nose, throat,
etc.
2. Connective Tissue: Provides support, stores energy,
and connects other tissues and parts (bones, fat, blood,
cartilage)
3. Muscular Tissue: Shortens and contracts. When
attached to bone, makes body movement. Also lines the
inner walls of organs that contract to help food pass to
even pumping blood
4. Nervous Tissue: Communication tissue located
throughout the body. When stimulated carries messages
back and forth between the brain and spinal cord to every
part of the body
9. Organs: A part of the body containing two
or more tissues that function together for
a specific purpose.
EXAMPLES
Brain
Heart
Stomach
Skin
10. System: A group of organs that work
together to carry out a specific activity
EXAMPLES
◦ Musculoskeletal system
◦ Nervous system
◦ Endocrine system
◦ Reproductive system
◦ Urinary and Excretory system
◦ Respiratory system
◦ Digestive system
◦ Circulatory system
11. Without it, we would be just a big mass of
tissue
206 bones in the body
Arranged in an orderly manner
Fastened together by connective tissue:
tendons & ligaments
12.
13. The five main functions of the skeletal
system are to:
Give the body shape and support
Allow movement
Protect vital organs
Reproduce blood cells
Store calcium
14. Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that
provides framework to the body. Its
purposes include:
To support body structures such as the ears and
nose
To connect the ribs to the sternum
To serve as a cushion between bones to prevent
them from rubbing together at junctures and joints
15.
16. A joint is any place where two bones meet.
Some immovable found in the skull and
movable like knee and elbow joints. There
are several types of joints:
Gliding Joints (spinal column and neck)
Ball and Socket Joints (shoulder and hip)
Pivot Joints (palm of the hand where it swivels)
Hinge Joints (knees, knuckles and elbows)
17.
18. The overall covering or lining of
a joint is called a synovial
membrane. It secretes or
produces a fluid called synovial
fluid to lubricate join surfaces.
19. Bones are comprised of living tissue, and
their strength and hardness come from
chemical substances called minerals. It
consists of two principle materials:
A hard outer material called cortical or compact bone.
Surrounded by the periosteum: a tough membrane that
contains bone-forming cells and blood vessels.
The inner section of bone is porous, and is called spongy
or cancellous bone. It is filled with material called marrow.
A pipeline of blood vessels and nerves runs through the
middle of thick bones.
20. Crainiotomy
Anterior Cervical Fusion
Posterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion
(PLIF)
Open Reduction Internal Fixation
(ORIF)
Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA)
Total Hip Arthroplasty (THA)
Surgical procedures that involve the skeletal system
include:
21. More than 600 muscles in the body
Heart muscles contract to pump blood
Muscles in digestive tract move food &
fluid through body
Muscles throughout the body produce
heat, maintain body’s core temperature.
22. Muscles: Made up of long, thin cells
or fibers that run parallel to one
another, bundled together by
connective tissue, called fascia.
Have the ability to contract and
shorten, cause body movements.
26. Vast communication network.
Coordinates and carries messages between
all parts of the body.
Enables us to be aware of the changes in
the environment and to react accordingly.
Complex series of nervous tissues, like
electrical wiring runs from the brain and
spinal cord throughout the entire body.
27. Functions of the Nervous System include:
Controls all body activities/ allows us to respond
to stimuli
Nerve tissue carries electrical messages from
brain and spinal cord that signal muscles to
contract.
Other actions are more conscious and involve
emotion, reason, and memory.
29. The Nervous System is composed of two
types of cells:
Neurons (also called nerve cells): that
carry and transmit information
Neuroglia: support and protect neurons as
they work.
The Nervous System is divided into two
parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Peripheral Nervous System
30. The Brain:
Main control
unit of the
CNS
Has more
than 100
billion nerve
cells
Is a spongy
and complex
organ
Three membranes
surround the
brain, and
provide
nourishment and
protection to it:
Pia mater
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater
The brain is
divided into
three parts:
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brain Stem
31. The Sense
Organs:
Eyes
Ears
Nose
Tongue
Skin
Accessory structures of the
nervous system
Special sensory receptors,
message-carrying structures
Respond to stimuli from outside
the body
Others keep track of the body’s
internal environment
Respond to light, sound, taste,
chemicals, heat, and pressure
32. The Eyes:
organs of
vision.
Produce
images by
focusing
light rays
that are
interpreted
by the brain
The Eyes
consist of
three layers
of tissue:
Sclera
Choroid
Retina
Eye
Choroid
Cornea
Pupil
Iris
Optic Nerve
Sclera
34. The Nose is the organ of smell:
Consists of many sensory receptors or
cells
Receptors located in the mucous
membranes of the nasal cavity
Sensitive to chemicals carried through the
air
Olfactory nerve endings extend to the
receptors
Stimulated by different odors
35. OLFACTORY BULB
BONE
EPITHELIAL CELL
CILIA
NERVE FIBER
Olfaction allows us to identify food,
experience sensual pleasures like
the smell of flowers, as well as
detect signs of danger (spoiled
food, chemical hazards).
Smells (odorants) are sensed by
the olfactory epithelium located in
the nasal cavity and first processed
by the olfactory bulb. The odorant
must possess certain molecular
properties–it must be water soluble
and have high vapor pressure and
low polarity–in order to interact
with the olfactory receptors and
produce signals that can be
interpreted as odor. The olfactory
sense is able to distinguish among
an almost infinite number of
chemical compounds.
The mucous lipids assist in
transporting the odorant
molecules. Each olfactory receptor
neuron has 8-20 cilia that are
whip-like extensions (they mark
the beginning of sensory
transduction).
MITRAL CELL
CHEMO-RECEPTOR
CELL
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
36. The Tongue is the organ of taste:
Covered with taste buds, sensory receptors
Sense of taste is a chemical sense
Chemicals carried by saliva throughout the mouth
Taste buds can distinguish 4 kinds of taste: sweet,
sour, bitter, and salty
80 different types of chemical odors
Combination of taste and odors produces flavors
37. TASTE
Open mouth with tongue extended indicating areas that distinguish taste,
and inset of each tongue region and their function.
Bitter Sour Sweet Salty
38. The Skin is the largest body
organ:
Nerve endings at and below its surface
Acts as an important sensory organ
Touch receptors near the skin’s surface allows
us to distinguish textures
Also responds to heat, cold, and moisture
Further below skin’s surface are receptors,
respond to touch and pressure
Sense of pain stimulates nerves and sends
messages of potential danger to the brain
40. Changes in body activities are set in
motion by the hormones or secretions
produced by the glands of the endocrine
system. For example:
◦ Muscles tensing
◦ Heartbeat quickening
◦ Breathing rhythm changes
The Endocrine System influences
functions of metabolism, growth, and
personality
41. Endocrine System
Adrenal Glands
Release adrenalin that
increases heart rate and
physical strength. Also
enhance the ability to
think and respond
quickly in emergency
situations.
Thyroid Gland
Helps regulate the rate of
metabolism and maintain
the body's levels of
calcium and phosphorus.
Testes
Produce the hormone,
testosterone, that stimulates
the development of masculine
characteristics.
Pituitary Gland
Helps control the activities of all
endocrine glands. Also stimulates
skeletal and body growth, development
of sex organs, regulation of blood
pressure, the reproductive process, and
muscle development.
Pancreas
Produces insulin which
reduces the level of
sugar in the
bloodstream and
glucagon which can
increase the blood's
sugar level.
Ovaries
Produce two hormones,
estrogen which is responsible
for the development of female
characteristics and
progesterone, which together
with estrogen, regulates the
menstrual cycle.
42. Important information about the endocrine
system:
Endocrine glands that produce hormones
are not necessarily next to the organs they
control.
The nervous system and endocrine system
work together.
Endocrine glands are located throughout
the body.
Some glands of the endocrine system
secrete more then one hormone.
43. The major glands of the endocrine
system include:
Pituitary gland: small, pea-shaped
Thyroid gland: located at the base of the
neck
Parathyroid gland: four pea-shaped glands
Adrenal glands: release adrenalin
Pancreas: located just below the stomach
44. The pancreas has 2 primary hormones
that it produces:
1. Insulin: which reduces the level of
sugar in the blood stream
2. Glucagon: which can increase the
blood’s sugar level
45. The ovaries (female sex glands)
produce 2 hormones: estrogen and
progesterone
The testes (male sex glands) produce
the hormone: testosterone
47. The male sex cell is produced by the
male reproductive system called sperm
The female sex cell (egg) is called
ovum and produced by the female
reproductive system
Both sperm and ovum contain rod-
shaped structures called chromosomes
48. The male reproductive system:
Testes
Scrotum
Epididymus
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Ejaculatory duct
Semen
Urethra
Penis
Prostate gland
52. Surgical procedures involving the
reproductive system include:
Orchiectomy
Orchiopexy
Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP)
Radical Prostatectomy
Hysterectomy
Bilateral Salpingoophorectomy
Endometrial Ablation
Dilatation & Curettage (D & C)
Ectopic Pregnancy
Pelviscopy
Tubal Ligation
53. The urinary system provides “pollution
control” by eliminating body waste and
blood is filtered by the urinary system.
Urine is a water solution consisting of
various waste substances
Color from excreted bile pigments
Average adult excretes between 1000cc-
1800cc of urine during a 24-hour period
58. The respiratory system supplies the
body with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide that forms as a result
of the body using oxygen in the
blood
59. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Deoxygenated blood
from the heart
Bronchioles
Oxygenated blood
to the heart
Alveoli - site of gas exchange
Respiratory System
Lungs
Nasal Cavity
Mouth
Pharnyx
Trachea
60. Exchange of gases is accomplished
automatically as one breathes in a two
step process:
1. Inspiration (inhaling air into the lungs)
2. Expiration (exhaling air from the lungs)
Air contains impurities such as dirt, dust,
and microorganisms, and these are filtered
out by the respiratory system
61. The primary organs of the
respiratory system are:
Nose
Pharynx
Trachea
Lungs
62. More About the Lungs:
Right lung consists of three lobes
Left lung consists of two lobes (room for
heart)
Located in thoracic cavity
Covered by thin membrane, pleura
Protected by skeletal rib cage and
sternum
Diaphragm, muscle located below the
lungs, causes chest cavity to expand
64. The digestive system converts food into
energy for the body. The human body
requires 6 basic categories of nutrients:
1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates
3. Fats
4. Water
5. Minerals
6. Vitamins
65. Digestion breaks food down mechanically and
chemically
Pathway that food takes through the digestive system is
called the alimentary canal
Alimentary canal is approximately 30 ft. Consists of:
◦ Mouth
◦ Esophagus
◦ Stomach
◦ Small intestine
◦ Large intestine
◦ Rectum
◦ Anus
66. Pancreas
produces
digestive
enzymes and
assists with fat
digestion.
Stomach
stores and
breaks down
ingested food
into chyme.
Gall Bladder
stores bile, which
aids in digestion.
Digestive System
Salivary Glands
create mucus to soften
food and aid in digestion
Small
Intestine
(duodenum,
jejunum, and ilium)
digests
carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins and
absorbs nutrients
Large
Intestine
absorbs water,
electrolytes and salts.
Mouth
Chews food to make it easier
to pass through the
esophagus (swallow).
Esophagus
Moves food to
the stomach.
Liver
produces bile
needed for
digestion.
67. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
are accessory organs of the digestive
system
The salivary, gastric, and intestinal
glands are accessory structures to the
digestive system
68. Review of the components of the
alimentary canal:
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestines
Large intestine
Rectum
Anus
69. Close look at 3 Important digestive
organs:
1. Pancreas
2. Liver
3. Gallbladder
70. Surgical procedures involving the digestive
system include:
Appendectomy
Parotidectomy
Gastrectomy
Gastric Bypass
Cholecystectomy
Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy
Colectomy
71. The circulatory system is the body’s
primary transportation network. Delivers
nutrients and oxygen to body cell, and
carries away carbon dioxide and other
harmful waste products from them
Accomplished as blood is pumped
through 64,000 miles of blood vessels in
the body
72. The lymphatic system is a subsidiary of the
circulatory system, and it serves a vital role
in the body’s defense against disease:
Consists of a series of tiny vessels, throughout
body
Large numbers of lymph nodes, filter bacteria and
other harmful material out of the lymph
Tonsils are one type of a lymph node
Sentinel lymph nodes are frequently identified
during cancer surgery
73. Lymphatic Glands of the Neck
Parotid Lymphatic
Node
Superior Deep
Cervical Node
Submaxillary Node
Suboccipital
Lymphatic Node
Posterior Auricular
Node
Inferior Deep
Cervical Node
Lymphatic System
74. Blood is a type of connective tissue fluid
that moves throughout the circulatory,
system and transports many important
substances:
Contains an average of five to seven liters
of blood
Blood is made up of 55% of plasma
Red blood cells structures rich in
hemoglobin, pick up oxygen in the lungs,
transport to all over the body
Red blood cells produced in the bone
marrow, life span of 120 days
75. White blood cells attack, destroy, and
digest disease-producing organisms
Platelets traps blood cells and plasma
that will harden and clot
76. Arteries carry blood away from the
heart
Veins carry blood back towards the
heart
Capillaries tiny vessels connections
between veins and arteries
78. The heart is the muscular organ about
the size of a fist that pumps five liters
of blood through the body every
minute:
Four hollow chambers
A thick tissue wall
Upper chambers atria
Lower chambers ventricles
79. Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Mitral valve
Left ventricle
Interventricular septum
Papillary muscle
Right atrium
Chordae tendonae
Superior Vena Cava
Pulmonary valve
Aorta
Pulmonary Artery
Heart
Left atrium