Dr. Ch VT- The topic describe about the general as well the the dental aspect too. The classification, clinical features and management. The dental conditions associated with haemorrhage and shock has been highlighted with their management
4. Introduction
Haemorrhage is said to be pertaining to bleed or the
abnormal flow of blood.
Shock is a life threatening condition characterized
by poor tissue perfusion with impaired cellular
metabolism, manifested in turn by serious
physiological abnormalities.
4
5. Haemorrhage can occur to a greater or lesser degree
during all surgical procedures and it’s management
depends upon whether the patient is hematologically
normal or suffers from some disturbance in the normal
clotting mechanism.
Usually haemorrhage is followed by shock as there is
blood loss which in turn leads to reduced tissue
perfusion
5
6. Haemorrhage
Term “Haemorrhage” comes fromGreek.
“haima”(Blood) + “rhegumai” (To Break forth)
The bleeding may occur externally or interally
into serous cavities e.g. haemothorax,
haemoperitoneum etc into a hollow viscus.
6
7. Important terms
Cardiac Cycle
The repetitive pumping action that produces
pressure changes that circulate blood
throughout the body
Cardiac Output
Is a product of stroke volume and heart rate.
Stroke volume- volume of blood ejected in each
cycle
7
8. Cardiac Output
Normal CO = 5 to 6 liters per minute (LPM)
Increase up to 30 LPM during stress or exercise
Heart Rate X Stroke Volume
Influenced by:
Strength of contraction
Rate of contraction
Amount of venous return available to the ventricle (preload)
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9. Haematoma- Extravasation of blood into the
tissues with resultant swelling.
Ecchymosis-Large extravasation of blood into
skin and mucous membrane.
Petechiae - minute pin-head sized haemorrhages.
Haemangioma- collection/cluster of blood vessels
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10. Etiology
The blood loss may be large or sudden (acute), or small
repeated bleeds may occur over a period of time
(chronic).
Trauma
Vessel wall trauma
e.g. penetrating wound in the heart or great vessels, during
labour etc.
Spontaneous
e.g. Rupture of an aneurysm, septicaemia, acute
leukaemia’s,scurvy.
10
11. Inflammation
e.g. bleeding from chronic peptic ulcer,
typhoid ulcers, syphilitic involvement
of the aorta.
Vascular diseases
e.g. atherosclerosis.
Elevated pressure within the vessels
e.g. cerebral and retinal haemorrhages in
systemic hypertension etc.
11
12. CLASSIFICATION
According to the source of haemorrhage, it is classified in two
ways:-
A. 1. EXTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE
2. INTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE
B.1. ARTERIAL
2. VENOUS HAEMORRHAGE
3. CAPILLARY HAEMORRHAGE
12
13. 1.External haemorrhage- revealed outside or can be seen
externally.
Eg-
Epistaxis
Haematemesis
2.Internal haemorrhage- is not seen outside, it is a concealed
haemorrhage.
E.g-
Bleeding peptic ulcer,
Ruptured ectopic gestation
Fracture of major bones-Sometimes this haemorrhage may be
revealed or can be external. 13
14. Nature of the Haemorrhage
1. Arterial haemorrhage
Bright red in colour
Jets out which rises and falls in time with the pulse.
Pulsation of artery seen
Easily controlled as it is visible
2. Venous haemorrhage
Darker red
Never jets out but oozes out.
Non-pulsatile
Difficult to control-veins get retracted. 14
15. 3. Capillary haemorrhage
Red in colour
Oozes out slowly
If continues for many hours, blood loss
becomes serious, as in haemophilia.
15
17. The Time of Appearance of Haemorrhage,
• At the time of injury or operation.
PRIMARY
HAEMORRHAGE
• After 6-12hrs of surgery
• Cause- Hypertention, Sneezing,
Coughing, Retching
REACTIONARY
HAEMORRHAGE
• After 7-14 days
• Cause- infection and sloughing of a
vessel wall
SECONDARY
HAEMORRHAGE
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18. Duration of Haemorrhage
Acute- Occurs suddenly
Eg- oesophageal Variceal bleeding due to portal
hypertention
Chronic- Haemorrhoids, duodenal ulcer, TB Ulcer of
ileum
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21. MEASUREMENT OF ACUTE BLOOD LOSS
It is important to measure how much patient has lost blood. This amount
should always be replaced.
The blood loss detected by the methods is usually less than the actual
loss. This is because a considerable amount of water is lost via lungs,
from the wound and by evaporation of sweat from skin.
This loss of plasma and water constitutes 20% more than blood loss
detected by various methods.
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22. The best method of detecting is by weighing swabs. The other
methods are as follows:-
1. Blood clot size- a clenched fist is roughly equal to 500ml.
2. Swelling in closed fractures-
Moderate swelling in closed fracture of tibia = 500-1500 ml
blood loss.
Moderate swelling in fractured shaft of femur is 500-2000ml.
(Ruscoe Clarke)
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23. 3. Swab weighing – Blood loss can be measured by
weighing the swabs before and after use and adding the
total so obtained (1g = 1ml) to the volume of blood
collected in the suction or drainage bottles. (In extensive
wounds , the blood loss estimation is of no use)
4. Measurement of central venous pressure
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24. 5. Haemoglobin level (12-16 g/dl)- There is no immediate change in
haemorrhage, but within few hours the level is lowered by
haemodilution i.e movement of fluid into the vascular compartment
in order to restore the blood volume.
The degree of dilution gauged by haematocrit reading (PCV).
PCV is measured on capillary blood and read in mm.
Men- 40-56 %
Women – 35-48 %
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25. Treatment
Includes 3 steps
Physiologic response
Treatment of shock
Surgical methods
25
26. Starling’s Law of the Heart
When the rate at which blood flows into the heart from
the veins (venous return) changes, the heart
automatically adjusts its output to match inflow.
The more blood the heart receives the more it pumps…
Increased end diastolic volume increases
contractility.
Increases stroke volume.
Increases cardiac output.
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27. Managing shock
Hospitalisation
Intravenous
line
Blood
transfusion
Oxygen
Dopamine
As soon as possible
Iv Adm. Of RL/Plasma
eg: Hetastarch, Gelatin
Done to optimize ventricular
preload
If PO2 < 70mmHg O2
should be given by face mask
or nasal catheter.With careful monitoring of
pulse rate, BP, Urine, Cardiac
output, Hb% PCV
2microgm/kg/min: Renal Vasodilation.
5-15microgm/kg/min: Increase BP,
Improves Cardiac output
27
28. Surgical Methods
Application of artery forceps- (Spencer well’s forceps)
for bleeding from vein, arteries and capillaries
Application of ligatures- for bleeding vessels
Cauterisation
Application of bone wax- to control bleeding from bone.
Eg: Horsley’s wax)
Silver clips- for bleeding from cerebral vessels.
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29. Haemorrhage in Dentistry
Significant or major hemorrhages are not that common.
However, uncontrolled and persistent bleeding can occur in
some patients after dental extraction.
Therefore, it is still important to achieve proper hemostasis
in all patients during oral surgical procedures.
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30. Haemorrhage following Oral Surgical procedures
can occur due to local or systemic causes.
In healthy patients the postoperative bleeding is
mainly due to local causes
30
31. Causes
Local causes- originate in either soft tissue or
bone.
Bone bleeding- from nutrient canals in the
alveolar region, central vessels, such as the
inferior alveolar artery, or from central
vascular lesions (Hemangioma or Vascular
malformation).
31
32. Systemic causes-
Hemophilia
Von Willebrand’s disease
Patients with thrombocytopenia
Leukemia
Patients with uncontrolled hypertension.
32
33. Investigations
Laboratory
Platelet count- 100,000 - 400,000 cells /mm3
Bleeding time (BT)-2-8 Min
Prothrombin time (PT)-10-15 Sec
Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT)-25-40 Sec
Thrombin time (TT)-9-13 Sec
INR<3
Blood pressure- 120/80 mmHg (Healthy Adult)
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34. Management
Lower doses (30% of normal) of clotting factor concentrates.
Oral rinse of an antifibrinolytic agent (tranexamic acid)
following extraction 10 ml of a 5% solution.
Single dose of factor, in cases of severe hemophilia A
(elevating the factor VIII level to 101 IU/dL).
Desmopressin, (derivative of hormone vasopressin) increase factor
VIII level in some patients with mild or moderate forms of
hemophilia A or type 1 von Willebrand disease
K.D Tripathi 4th Edition 34
35. Fibrin glue as a local hemostatic.
In Endodontics-
The use of 4% sodium hypochlorite for irrigation and calcium
hydroxide paste appears to minimise this problem
Prophylactically- if patient is Haemophilic, adm.of coagulant
factor prior to treatment.
Andrew Brewer , Maria Elvira Correa GUIDELINES FOR DENTAL TREATMENT OF
PATIENTS WITH INHERITED BLEEDING DISORDERS World Federation of
Hemophilia, 2006
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36. Local Measures ( Synthetic Materials)
Surgicel (Oxidised RegeneratedCellulose)
Gelfoam with activated thrombin.
Avitene (Microfibrillar Collagen).
Etik Collagen (Packed collagen).
Tranexamic acid 5%.
Irrigation of wound with Tranexamic acid.
Pressure with oral packs
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38. Definition- Shock is a physiologic state characterized by
systemic reduction in tissue perfusion, resulting in
decreased tissue oxygen delivery.
Shock is a condition when despite normal oxygen
content of arterial blood, the oxygen delivery fails to
meet the metabolic requirements of the tissues.
( Davidson)
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Shock
44. Hypovolaemic (etiology)
Definition- medical condition in which rapid loss of
intravascular blood or plasma volume results in multiple organ
failure due to inadequate perfusion
Blood loss.
Haemorrhage
Plasma / body water loss.
Electrolytes imbalance.
Vomiting.
Diarrhea.
Dehydration.
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46. 46
Haemorrhage from systemic venules & small veins
Decreased filling of the right heart
Decrease of filling of the pulmonary vasculature
Decrease filling of the left atrium & ventricle
Decrease in left ventricular stroke volume
Drop in arterial blood pressure
shock
47. SIGN & SYMPTOMS
MILD HYPOVOLEMIA (<20% of blood loss)
Mild tachycardia but relatively few external signs especially in a
supine resting young patient
Cool extremities
Diaphoresis
Anxiety
MODERATE HYPOVOLEMIA (20-40% of blood loss)
Pt becomes increasingly anxious & tachycardic
Although normal blood pressure can be maintained in the supine
position, there may be significant postural hypotension &
tachycardia
Mild oliguria
CLINICAL MANIFESTATION OF HYPOVOLEMIC
SHOCK
47
48. 48
SEVERE HYPOVOLEMIA (>40%)
Blood pressure declines & unstable even in supine position
Marked tachycardia
Marked oliguria
Mental status deterioration (coma)
49. The impaired ability of the heart to pump
blood
Dysfunction of the right or left ventricle
or both (rare)
Most common cause is MI
Occurs when > 40% of ventricular mass
damage
Mortality rate of 80 % or MORE
49
Cardiogenic shock
51. Pathophysiology Of Cardiogenic
Shock
Left vetricular output decreases
Filling of left heart decreases
Right heart unable to pump blood
to lungs
Dysfunction of right ventricle
Failure of the left heart
Engorgement of pulmonary vasculature
Left ventricular and systemic arterial blood
pressure decreases
Left ventircle unable to maintain stroke
volume
Dysfunction of left ventricle
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52. Treatment Of Cardiogenic Shock
52
Clear airway with adequate oxygenation
In case of right sided failure caused by massive
pulmonary embolus- large doses of heparin is given iv
For pain- proper sedative like morphin is given
Fulminant pulmonary edema is treated using diuretics
53. Neurogenic Shock
53
A type of distributive shock that results from
the loss or suppression of sympathetic tone
Causes massive vasodilatation in the venous
vasculature, venous return to heart, C.O.
Can occur within 30 minutes of a spinal cord
injury at the fifth thoracic (T5) vertebra or
above
Can be in response to spinal anesthesia
54. Vasovagal Shock
54
It is a type of neurogenic shock
Pooling of blood in the limbs due to dilatation of
peripheral vasculature
Reduced venous return to the heart-low cardiac output-
bradycardia
Blood flow to brain is reduced- cerebral hypoxia &
unconsiousness
55. Etiological Factors Of Vasovagal
Shock
55
Anxiety
Overwhelming fear or grief
Site of bleeding
Severe pain
56. Pathophysiology of Neurogenic Shock
Disruption of sympathetic nervous system
Loss of sympathetic tone
Venous &arterial vasodilation
Decreased venous return
Decreased stroke volume
Decreased cardiac output
Decreased cellular oxygen supply
Impaired tissue perfusion
Impaired cellular metabolism 56
57. Clinical Features
57
Peculiar feature: skin remains warm, pink and well
perfused
Urine output is normal
Rapid heart rate
Low blood pressure
58. Treatment
58
Trendelenburg position: displaces blood from systemic
venules and small veins into the right heart & thus
increases cardiac output.
Fluid administration
Vasoconstrictor
59. Anaphylactic Shock
Serious allergic reaction that is rapid in onset and may
cause death.
Acute, life-threatening hypersensitivity reaction to an
antigen a person is allergic to.
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62. Pathophysiology
62
Release of inflammatory mediators and cytokines from mast
cells and basophils, typically due
Immunologic
Non -immunologic
63. 63
(IgE)
binds
Antigen
Antigen-bound IgE
activates
receptors on mast cells and basophils.
release of inflammatory mediators (histamine)
increase the contraction of bronchial smooth muscles
vasodilation, increase the leakage of fluid from blood
vessels, and cause heart muscle depression
Immunologic
64. Non immunologic
64
Non-immunologic mechanisms involve substances
that directly cause the degranulation of mast cells and
basophils.
These include agents such as contrast
medium, opioids, temperature (hot or cold), and
vibration.
65. Management of Anaphylactic
shock
65
Airway management
Supplemental oxygen
Large volumes of intravenous fluids, and close
monitoring.
Administration of epinephrine is the treatment of
choice with antihistamines and steroids(for
example, dexamethasone )
67. Treatment of septic shock
67
Prompt diagnosis and treatment is an effective way to
reduce the mortality
Treatment is divided into two groups
1. Early surgical debridement or drainage and using
appropriate antibiotics
2. Fluid replacement, steroid administration & use of
vasoactive drugs
68. Treatment of septic shock
68
Debridement or drainage under local or general
anasthesia as soon as possible after initial stability.
Antibiotics given based on specific culture and
sensivity test.
Broad spectrum antibiotics started initially
Cephalothin(6-8 gm/day i.v in 4-6 divided doses),
gentamicin (5 mg/Kg/day), Clindamycin or
chloromycetin
69. Treatment of septic shock
69
Fluid replacement-provide the sufficent blood volume to the
vital oragns.
Mechanical ventilation with endotracheal intubation in late
septic shock.
Short term , high dose steroid therapy in cases not responding
to the other methods of the treatment.
An initial dose of 15-30 mg/kg body wt of methyl
prednisolone or equivalent dose of dexamethasone i.v is given
in 5-10 mins
71. Stages of shock
Initial : The cells become leaky and switch to anaerobic
metabolism.
Non-progressive:(compensated stage) Attempt to
correct the metabolic upset of shock.
Progressive: (decompensated stage ) Eventually the
compensation will begin to fail.
Refractory : Organs fail and the shock can no longer be
reversed.
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76. Prehospital Care
Prevention of further injury & transportation of patient to hospital as
rapidly as possible
Prehospital intervention includes
Immobilization of the patient
Securing adequate airway
Ensuring ventilation
Maximizing circulation
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77. Maximise O2 Delivery
Airway assessment should be immediate.
Depth &rate of respiration assessed.
Any interfering pathology should be addressed immediately
High flow supplemental oxygen administered & ventilatory
support given
77
78. Commonly Used IV Fluids
Normal saline(0.9% NaCL): isotonic salt water.
Lactated ringer’s (RL): isotonic, 273 mOsm/L.
D5W: hypertonic, 406 mOsm/L.
Hypertonic saline(3% NaCl): 1026 mOSm & 513 mEq/L
Na.
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79. Other Therapy
Treatment By The Head-down Position. in hemorrhagic and neurogenic
shock when BP is too low,placing the patient in trendenlenburg position
promotes venous return, thereby also increasing C.O.
First essential step in the treatment of many types of shock.
OXYGEN THERAPY.
Frequently is far less beneficial, because the problem in most types of
shock is not inadequate oxygenation of the blood by the lungs but
inadequate transport of the blood after it is oxygenated
80
80. Treatment with Glucocorticoids (Adrenal Cortex Hormones That
Control Glucose Metabolism).
(1) Frequently increase the strength of the heart in the late stages of
shock;
(2) It stabilize lysosomes in tissue cells and thereby prevent release of
lysosomal enzymes into the cytoplasm of the cells, thus preventing
deterioration from this source; and
(3) Aid in the metabolism of glucose by the severely damaged cells.
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81. Conclusion
Haemorrhage and shcok are the conditions
best treated by prevention and proper
investigation and knowing the patient.
“NEVER Treat A Stranger”
– Sir William Osler
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