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1. EMAILS AND INFORMAL LETTERS
An informal letter or email is usually between people who know each other fairly well. In addition
to giving news, they are often used to request information, congratulate people, give advice and ask
questions. There are a lot of similarities between informal letters and conversation. Informal letters
ask a lot of questions, show interest and enthusiasm, and imagine a lot of shared information.
1 Titles and addresses
When writing an informal letter you sometimes write your own address and the date (but not your
name) at the top right-hand corner of the page, then start the letter on the left-hand side. Addresses
and dates are not given in an email, but emails do need a subject title. A subject title should be brief
and should summarize the main point of the email.
EXAM TIP
Many exams do not require you to write your address and the date at the start of your letter, so
make sure that you follow any instructions carefully.
Start with Dear followed by the first name of the person to whom you are writing. In emails, you
can also start with Hi (and the person's name), or just the person's name.
Informal letters sometimes have a comma after the person's name, and the letter starts on the line
below and is often indented. However, because of the popularity of word processing and emails, the
rules on punctuation and layout have now become more relaxed. The important thing is to be
consistent with the style that you choose to use (so if you use a comma after the person's name at
the start of the letter, use a comma after the closing statement at the end).
STUDY NOTE
Don't forget to use only the first name of the person you are writing to, not x Dear Mr John, which
is never used, or x Dear Mr John Brown, which sounds too formal.
2 Openings
When writing an informal letter, you are usually replying to another letter. You would normally
start with a greeting, then acknowledge the letter to which you are replying. It is often a good idea
to acknowledge some key information given in the original letter too. You can also make a
comment on your own reply.
USEFUL PHRASES
Start with a greeting: How are you? | How have the family been? | I hope you are well.
Acknowledge the original letter: Thank you for the letter and parcel which arrived this morning. | It
was great to hear from you again after such a long time. | I was so surprised to hear that you are
going to university in America!
Make a comment on your reply: I have so much to tell you. | I'm sorry I haven't written for so long.
3 Covering all the issues

2. When you have finished your opening comments, begin a new paragraph and cover all the
information that you want to mention. A letter that is written accurately and with a good range of
language will still not be effective unless you make sure that you say all the things you need to say.
Make sure that your reply answers any questions that you were asked in the original letter or email
and takes into account any additional information that you have been told to mention.
EXAM TIP
In many exam questions, you will be told what to include in your reply. There will also often be
additional notes which serve as prompts for your reply. It is important that you include these in
order to get a good grade.
4 Using informal language
An informal letter or email is an opportunity to demonstrate informal language skills. There are a
number of ways to make your language informal:
USEFUL PHRASES
Use intensifying adjectives and adverbs to show enthusiasm: I've got a fantastic new job. | My new
boss is an absolute nightmare.
Use idiomatic language: Things have been getting on top of me at work lately. | It's been ages since
we last managed to meet up. | What have you been up to lately? | Let me know what you think. | I'll
fill you in when we next meet.
Use question forms to make the letter read more like a conversation: How are your studies going? |
How does that sound to you?
Use informal vocabulary: use get instead of receive, I guess instead of I think
Use phrasal verbs and phrases: we get on well, write back soon, get in touch.
Use contractions: I can't help thinking I should've told you sooner.
5 Range
It is important that you use grammatical expressions and vocabulary appropriate to the level of the
exam. Even if there are no mistakes in your writing, you will not be able to get a good grade if you
use only the language and vocabulary that you learnt at elementary level. Even in informal writing,
there is a good range of language you can use.
USEFUL LANGUAGE
Use the present perfect progressive to give news: I've been helping my parents out at their shop.
Use a future progressive for future plans: I'm going to be staying at my grandmother's house all
summer.
Use conditional sentences to make suggestions: If you let me have your number, I'll give you a call
at the weekend.

3. Use polite question forms for requests: Do you think you could send me a copy of the photos? |
Would you mind if we didn't go camping?
Use question tags to check information: Nobody else knows, do they? | You don't mind, do you?
6 Connectors
All good writing makes good use of connectors. However, many of the connectors you have learnt
for other styles of writing are inappropriate in an informal letter or email. For informal writing, you
need to use some of the connectors that are more specific to spoken language.
USEFUL PHRASES
To introduce a topic: Well, you'll never guess who I bumped into yesterday. | I know how much you
love tennis, so I've got us some tickets to Wimbledon. | By the way, did you know that John's got a
new job?
To go back to a previous topic: Anyway, as I was saying earlier, I really wasn't very happy there. |
Now where was I? Oh yes, I nearly forgot, Mary asked me tell you about the cinema.
To introduce surprising or bad news: Actually, he came to the party after all. | I'm really sorry but I
can't make it. | To tell you the truth, I don't really like sports much.
To summarise what you've already said: Anyway, we had a really nice time in the end. | Well, to cut
a long story short, we didn't get there on time.
7 Closing statements
The end of your letter is as important as the beginning. There are some standard ways of finishing
an informal letter or email.
USEFUL PHRASES
Give a reason why you're ending the letter: Anyway, I must go and get on with my work! | I guess
it's time I got on with that studying I've been avoiding.
Make a reference to future contact: Anyway, don't forget to let me know the dates of the party. | I'll
try and phone you at the weekend to check the times. | We must try and meet up soon. | I can't wait
to hear from you.
A closing statement, such as Take care, Best wishes or Love should be written on a new line. If you
used a comma after the opening greeting, use a comma here too. Your name then follows on
another new line. People often write an X below their name to indicate a kiss.
If you have forgotten something important, add it at the end, after your name, after the letters PS.
Sample emails
Part of an informal email:

4. Anyway, I was really writing to ask if you would like to stay a little bit longer when you come over.
You've already got the wedding invitation - I can't believe my sister's getting married in a few
months' time! I was thinking perhaps we could spend some time together before or after the
wedding. Let me know what dates would be good for you. Also, my mum would like to know if
you wouldn't mind sharing a room. We're going to be quite busy, what with the wedding and
everything.
I know this is your first visit to Britain, so please let me know in your next email what kind of
things you'd like to do when you're here. We're going to have a great time.
Write back soon.
John
An informal email in answer:
To John@bullnet.com
From Maria@winnet.com
Subject - Your invitation
Dear John
Thanks for your email. I'm glad to hear that everything is going well. Sorry I'm a bit late replying,
but I've been really busy studying for my exams and I haven't had time to check my mail for days.
Thank you so much for inviting me to stay a bit longer. I'd love to spend some more time with you.
I'll really need a break after all this studying. My classes at university finish on 5th July. Is it OK if I
come on Monday 15th July and leave on Friday 26th? If these dates sound good, let me know and
I'll go ahead and book the flight.
I need to ask you a few questions about your sister's wedding. What kind of clothes should I bring?
I've never been to a wedding abroad before. Also, my family really wants to get a small gift for
Jane. My parents are very fond of her. What do you think about some beach towels? They could use
them on their honeymoon.
Finally, you asked me what I'd like to do when I get there. Well, I guess the first few days we'll be
busy getting ready for the wedding. After that, though, there are one or two things I'd like to do.
You know I'm a huge fan of modern art and I hear that the Tate Gallery has a fantastic new
exhibition on. Do you think we could go there one day? Of course, a day sightseeing in London
would be great, too. Other than that, I'll leave it up to you.
Anyway, I hope to hear from you soon.
Take care
Maria
PS By the way, could you please tell your mother that I don't mind about the room? Whatever is
easiest for her will be fine.

5. STRUCTURING WRITING
There are certain things that all good writing contains.
Features such as paragraphing, cohesion and using complex sentences make a text easier or more
interesting to read and will be given a higher grade by examiners.
All writing should contain an introduction, main body and conclusion. The information you need to
include in each of these sections will depend on the style of writing.
1 Paragraphing
Successful paragraphing is essential to good writing. Do not use too many paragraphs. If paragraphs
are very short, the writer has either introduced ideas without developing them, or separated one idea
over several paragraphs.
If paragraphs are very long, there is usually more than one idea in the same paragraph. Poor
paragraphing is considered poor style and will not get a good grade.
As a general rule, a paragraph should use a minimum of three sentences to develop an idea. It is not
common to see paragraphs of more than six sentences, although there are some exceptions.
There are ten easy ways to develop an idea into a paragraph. You can select from the following.
1.1 BEGIN WITH AN IDEA
Introduce the topic of your paragraph clearly in the first sentence.
USEFUL PHRASES
Introduce the main idea: I tend to think that a later date would be more suitable. | Many people
argue that there is a strong case for capital punishment. | I would like to ask you a few questions
about John's birthday party.
See Essay Activator, Giving opinions
This sentence is often called the topic sentence, as the main idea of the paragraph is clearly stated.
Although a topic sentence can appear anywhere in the paragraph, it is often the first sentence in the
paragraph.
1.2 GIVE MORE INFORMATION
If something is unclear, you can give more information in the following sentence.
USEFUL PHRASES
Add an explanation or further information: By young people I mean children under the age of
twelve who are not yet completely responsible for their actions.
See Essay Activator, Explaining
1.3 SHOW CONCESSION

6. Often an argument has two sides. Show that you understand the weaker side to the argument, but
that you are not persuaded or not able to accept this idea.
USEFUL PHRASES
Add concession: Although I would be happy to come to your office, I'm afraid that this will not be
possible until the end of the month. | While I understand that this may be difficult, I feel that it is the
only option. | Despite the high levels of unemployment in that year, crime did not rise.
See Essay Activator, Linking parts of a sentence
1.4 REJECT AN IDEA
A strong way of making a point is to express your doubts about an argument, say what you do not
believe, or state what is not possible.
USEFUL PHRASES
Say what you do not think: I am not convinced of the benefits of this proposal. | I do not believe that
this level of service is satisfactory.
State what is not possible or point out false conclusions: It is not necessarily the case that an
immediate ban on smoking would have a positive effect. | I am afraid that I cannot accept the dates
that you have suggested.
See Essay Activator, Advantages and Disadvantages
1.5 GIVE EVIDENCE OR EXAMPLES
Giving details about what, where, or when something happens makes your ideas stronger
USEFUL PHRASES
Add examples: There are several reasons for this, such as an increase in life expectancy, or a rise in
living standards. | A good example of this is my home town, where the city centre has been made
into a pedestrian zone.
Give evidence: This argument has been supported by many experts in the field. | Research suggests
that a good diet may be more important to educational achievement than we previously thought.
See Essay Activator, Giving examples, Quoting people
1.6 GIVE THE REASON FOR SOMETHING
Say why something has happened.
USEFUL PHRASES
Give reasons or results: This would mean that many younger people would no longer have access to
sports at school. | As a result of this, we have seen a rise in profits.
Talk about the cause or effect: A key factor is the level of education in a society. | There may be
serious repercussions in the future.

7. See Essay Activator, Giving reasons, Problems and Solutions, Causes, Effects
You should pay careful attention to the construction of these words. You will need to be aware of
the order of ideas (if the word is followed by a reason or a result), and to the word form. Some of
these words are verbs and you will need to learn the correct constructions (result in something,
cause something to happen etc), some are nouns (a factor, a repercussion), and some are
conjunctions and come between clauses (because, therefore). The dictionary will give you guidance
on how to use these words and phrases.
1.7 GIVE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Giving more than one reason, example or result is a clear way of building a strong point.
USEFUL PHRASES
Add additional information: Not only were the staff unable to speak the local language, but they
were also extremely unhelpful. | Another good reason is the cost of this plan.
See Essay Activator, Linking parts of a sentence
1.8 GIVE THE CONSEQUENCES OF AN ACTION
Say what might happen next.
USEFUL PHRASES
Give consequences: If this is not possible, we will have to find an alternative date. | We must take
action now, otherwise it may be too late.
See Essay Activator, Effects, Problems and Solutions
You should pay careful attention to synonyms of the word if. Not all of the words that are similar to
if can be used all the time. You may have to use a first conditional, not the second or third
conditionals (e.g., Provided that we act now, there is a chance that the environment will improve.)
You may only be able to use an expression with a positive idea (e.g.: Provided that we continue to
invest in new technology, solutions will be found), or with a negative idea (e.g.: We must act now,
otherwise it will be too late.)
The dictionary will give you guidance on using these words, but check before you write them in
your essays.
1.9 MAKE IMPORTANT ISSUES CLEAR
Some events or reasons are more important than others. Occasionally signaling important points can
make your ideas much clearer.
USEFUL PHRASES
Introduce strong arguments and ideas: Besides, the hotel will be closed during that period. |
Moreover, many people feel that this policy is unfair to the most vulnerable members of our
society. | To make matters worse, the hotel room did not have an en-suite bathroom and we had to
share a shower with three other families.

8. See Essay Activator, Emphasizing
1.10 REMIND THE READER OF THE MAIN POINT OF THE PARAGRAPH
Say why the information in your paragraph is important, or what the reader must do next.
USEFUL PHRASES
Repeat the main point: For this reason, many people argue that hunting should be banned. | I am
very sorry for any inconvenience caused.
Say what might or will happen next: Please could I have your response by the end of the week? |
This will have a significant effect on the future generations.
2 Cohesion
A paragraph is a group of sentences that are connected in terms of ideas, and also in terms of
grammar and vocabulary. This is called cohesion.
There are three effective ways of developing cohesion in your writing.
2.1 PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing means writing the same idea, but in different words.
USEFUL PHRASES
Use a different part of speech: The number of smokers rose for three years consecutively. This rise
was largely because of successful advertising campaigns.
Use synonyms: More people bought video recorders that year compared to the previous year, when
only 500 purchased a recorder.
Use summaries: Junior managers tend to feel under more pressure to work long hours than their
superiors. This tendency is seen in many different sectors.
2.2 SUBSTITUTION
Substitution is writing a pronoun instead of a full name or phrase.
USEFUL PHRASES
Use he / they etc: I spoke to John and he said that you would tell him.
Use this / this + noun: There were several repairs which needed to be carried out. This meant that
production was significantly delayed. | The figures were much lower in European countries. This
difference was largely a result of higher spending on education.
Use that / those after a comparative form: The incidence of illiteracy among women in Africa was
significantly lower than that of their European counterparts. | In general the results for Shanghai
were more positive than those of the other five cities in the survey.

9. Use such +(a) + noun: A large minority of visitors felt that the museum did not provide value for
money. Such concerns were also raised by the leaders of school parties.
Use auxiliary + so: We cannot continue to ignore the problem. If we do so, the effects may become
impossible to reverse.
Change a to the after the first mention: There was an increase in the amount of pollution in Bogota.
The increase was largely due to the rise in population numbers.
Shorten names after the first mention: Dr Livingford refers to this in his book. Livingford argues
that children need more time to play. | The Institute for Cancer Research (ICR) has come up with a
few solutions. According to scientists at the ICR, we may need to look more closely at lifestyle
issues than we have before.
2.3 CONNECTORS
There is a wide range of connectors available to give the reader clues about how a sentence relates
to the previous sentence. They tell us if we are about to read the reason (because), something
surprising (despite), something important (moreover) etc. Many are already discussed in section 1
paragraphing. However, you can also build cohesion by using relative clauses.
USEFUL PHRASES
Use a relative clause: Ice-cream, which was originally available from specialist stores, quickly
became popular.
Use a present or past participle: The factories located in the countryside were cheaper to run. | The
number of people buying leather goods fell.
See Essay Activator, Linking parts of a sentence
3 Complex sentences
Good writing should have a good mixture of sentence lengths. Longer sentences demonstrate
control of language and are more interesting to read. Short sentences can be used to make a
dramatic point.
USEFUL LANGUAGE
Use complex noun phrases: The rise in the number of unemployed people in my country has lead to
many problems. | There have been a number of difficulties with the new system.
Use relative clauses: We had a few concerns which we would like to raise with you now. | There are
many people nowadays who would like to take a month off to go travelling.
Use connectors: Despite the many difficulties, we felt the weekend was an overall success.
Add description with adjectives and adverbs: We had an absolutely amazing time visiting the
spectacular mountains and admiring the beautiful scenery. | We walked hurriedly past the ancient
wall to the empty fields outside the city.
4 Using your own language and terms

10. It is never a good idea to copy phrases or expressions from the question or from any information
you are given. Copying another person's words and using them in your own work is considered
plagiarism and will always be marked down in an exam.
See Writing Guide, University end of term paper for more information on avoiding plagiarism.
Try to find ways of rewriting this information so that it means the same, but with different words.
USEFUL PHRASES
Use synonyms: Explain why you are suitable for the job. I believe I would be perfect for this
particular position as I have all the relevant experience.
Change the word order of the sentence: Levels of obesity are rising. There is a rise in the levels of
obesity.
5 Audience and purpose
We always write for someone in particular and with a particular purpose. Your writing should
reflect this.
USEFUL PHRASES
Be consistent with the register of your writing: I just wanted to find out how it all went. (informal) |
I am writing to enquire about the results of your recent tests. (formal)
Use the formulaic phrases appropriate to your purpose: Hope to hear from you soon. (informal
letter). | Please do not hesitate to contact me if you need any further information. (formal letter)
After you have finished writing, re-read your work. Would the reader be informed, persuaded or
entertained? Have you covered all the points that are essential to make your letter or writing
effective? If the answer is no, you will not get a good grade, even if the writing is of a high
standard.
6 Range
The quality of the language and vocabulary that you use will influence the final effect of your
writing on the target reader.
USEFUL LANGUAGE
Use an appropriate range of tenses: We have been experiencing some problems with the new
system. | By 2001, the figures had fallen to 5 million. | Phone me on Friday - I'll have finished it by
then.
Try to use a variety of ways to begin your sentences: I sent the package to you last week. The
package was sent last week. | Unfortunately, the package was sent last week.
Learn phrases, rather than isolated words. That way, you can use them in writing: This has had an
enormous impact on our business. | We have carried out a survey of driving habits.