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Pedagogical aspects of learning
        technologies
        Lecture for KAK6003



             Kai Pata
Contents
Leading questions:
•  What proverbs and metaphors have been used
   for describing learning?
•  Which learning theories are behind these
   proverbs and metaphors?
•  How are learning theories related with
   instructional designs?
Estonian proverbs about learning
•  Kes õpib, see ka teab. – Who will study that
   will know.
•  Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta. _You cannot
   put wisdom into the head with the ladle.
•  Harjutamine teeb meistriks. – Practicing makes
   you a master.
•  Töö õpetab tegijat. – Work teaches the doer.
•  Töö õpetab iseennast. – Labour teaches itself.
Estonian proverbs about learning
•  Ela õppimise tarvis ja õpi elamise tarvis. –
   Live for learning and learn for living.
•  Inimene õpib hällist kunni hauani. – Man
   learns from cradle to the tomb.
•  Mida Juku ei õpi, seda Juhan ei tea. – What
   Juku does not learn, Juhan will not know.
Some metaphors about learning
•  Planting flowers - A seed is planted in my mind
   which I nurture with water and sun in the faith that it
   will sprout and grow.
•  Being a detective - It's all about uncovering the
   facts, looking for clues and asking the right questions
   until the whole mystery makes sense.
•  A quest - I'm searching for that illusive something
   and every step I take brings me closer to what I need
   to know, but I never get there ... it's a continuous
   journey.
Discussing proverbs and
       metaphors of learning
•  Think of one proverb from your country, that
   describes Learning.
•  What is your leading metaphor for learning?
•  Write each of them on the paper clips.

•  We will organize them according to the
   learning theories later on.
Learning theories – why and
         how we learn?
•  Learning theory is the set    of principles about
   learning:
   –  consisting of the descriptions what initiates learning
   –  how learning process proceeds,
   –  and what is the result of learning (Driscoll, 1994).
•  Learning theories describe the essence of learning and
   predict the results of learning.
But…
•  Learning theories are general and give few concrete
   guidelines how to implement these in certain
   situations.
Behavioural learning

Harjutamine teeb meistriks. – Practicing makes you a master.
Töö õpetab tegijat. – Work teaches the doer.
Töö õpetab iseennast. – Labour teaches itself.
“Black box” metaphor
Skinner (1950) introduced behavioural learning theory:
“A science of behavior must eventually deal with
behavior in its relation to certain manipulable
variables.
Principles of behaviourism
‘conditioning reflex’
Pavlov provided the basis of
behaviourism highlighting the
importance of stimulus for
learning.
Neutral Stimulus (NS) => No
Response (NR)
NS + Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS) => Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) =>
Conditioned Response (CR)
                                Pavlov dog
Principles of behavioural
Skinner, 1950:
                 learning
1. Behaviour that is positively
reinforced will reoccur;
intermittent reinforcement is
particularly effective
2. Information should be
presented in small amounts so that
responses can be reinforced
("shaping")
3. Reinforcements will generalize
across similar stimuli ("stimulus
generalization") producing
secondary conditioning               Skinner box
“Response
         strenghtening”metaphor
1900-1950 Learning as response strenghtening



                                   Teacher gives
                                   punishment and
                                   rewards, student
                                   reacts with teacher
                                   defined behaviour




 Drill, tutorial, assessment test centered learning
General educational implications
        of behaviorism

Emphasis on behavior: students should be active
respondents…
…people are most likely to learn when they actually
have a chance to behave.
Student learning must be evaluated…
…only measurable behavior changes can confirm
that learning has taken place.
Drill and practice
•  Repetition of stimulus-response habits strengthens those
   habits.
•  …Promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through
   repetitive practice.
•  …Refers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or
   vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and may
   also be found in more complex learning tasks or physical
   education games and sports.
•  …Involves repetition of specific skills.
•  To be meaningful to learners, the skills built through drill-and-
   practice should become the building blocks for more meaningful
   learning.
•  Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool.
Proverbs about behavioral
             learning
•  Harjutamine teeb meistriks. – Practicing makes
   you a master.
•  Töö õpetab tegijat. – Work teaches the doer.
•  Töö õpetab iseennast. – Labour teaches itself.

•  Which of your proverbs and metaphors are
   associated with behavourism?
Advantages of drill programs
•  personalized
•  help learners master          DRILL program ABC
   materials at their own pace   •  recognition of the type of
                                    skill being developed
•  mainly for the beginning
   learner                       •  use of appropriate
                                    strategies to develop
•  for students who are             competencies
   experiencing learning         •  use of games to increase
   problems                         motivation
•  interactive nature            •  provide feedback to
                                    students
Cognitive learning

Kes õpib, see ka teab. – Who will
study that will know.
Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta. -
You cannot put wisdom into the head
with the ladle.
“Information processing”
               metaphor
1960-1970 learning as information processing
(Mayer,1996).

Teacher is transmissing
knowledge, students are
receivers of knowledge




       Textbooks and other content management systems.
“Knowledge acquisition”
                metaphorAnna Sfard 1998
•  According to the “knowledge-acquisition” metaphor
   learning is the construction of well-organised knowledge
   structures that provide students with the means of
  interacting with the important aspects of the problem
   situations.
•  Acquiring scientific knowledge takes place through
   conceptual change where intuitive knowledge is
   replaced/modified with scientifically correct knowledge.
•  “Knowledge acquisition” metaphor
   is based on the idea that our brain
   is a container
   and the learning process is filling
   this container (Bereiter, 2002).
“Brain as the computer” metaphor
Computer has information inputs and action outputs
similarly as we receive signals from the environment
with our sensory organs and react with behavours that
emerge in response to the outside signals
Information is recorded, decoded and processed both
inside the computer and the brain, this processing
provides the output behaviours. information


                            reaction
Model of cognitive architecture
“Dual-coding” theory




A dual coding theory of learning from visual and verbal
materials. (Mayer, 1993)
“Cognitive load” theory
•  Provides guidelines to assist in the presentation of
   information in such a way that helps learners to
   optimize their intellectual performance.
•  Is based on the assumptions of:
   –  an effectively unlimited longterm memory and
   –  a limited working memory
      (e.g., Baddeley, 1986),
•  Aims at designing
   instructions that do
   not overburden the
   learners’ cognitive
   capabilities.
Proverbs about cognitivel learning
•  Kes õpib, see ka teab. – Who will study that
   will know.
•  Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta. - You cannot
   put wisdom into the head with the ladle.

•  Which of your proverbs and metaphors are
   associated with behavourism?
Constructivist and social-
      constructivist learning

Ela õppimise tarvis ja õpi elamise tarvis. – Live for
learning and learn for living.
Mida Juku ei õpi, seda Juhan ei tea. – What Juku does not
learn, Juhan will not know.
“Knowledge construction” metaphor
1980-1990 learning as knowledge construction (Mayer,
1996).
                     guided inquiry
                     discussions




    Student is constructing knowledge on the
    basis of earlier knowledge in real situations,
    teacher is guiding the learning process
“Discovery” metaphor
•  Discovery learning
   is based on the "Aha!“
   method.


•  Dewey wrote: "There is an intimate and necessary
   relation between the processes of actual experience
   and education".
•  Bruner believed that students learn best by discovery
   and that the learner is a problem solver who interacts
   with the environment testing hypotheses and
   developing generalizations.
“Experiental learning”
             metaphor
•  The foundation of learning is experience.
•  Learning is the transformation of our experiences
   into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values
•  Reflection
   helps to transform
   the experiences.
   (Kolb)
“Inquiry learning” metaphor
“Anchoring” metaphor
•  Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for
   technology-based learning that has been
   developed by the Cognition & Technology Group
   at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of
   John Bransford.
                                                KNOWLEDGE
•  Learning and teaching activities should be
   designed around an 'anchor' which
   should be some sort of case-study
   or problem situation.
  Adventures of Jasper Woodbury
  http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasper/preview/AdvJW.html
“Knowledge building” metaphor
  Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994)
•  Knowledge building refers to collective work for
   the advancement and elaboration of conceptual
   artifacts (product plans, business strategies,
   marketing plans, theories, ideas, and models) (the
   world of cultural knowledge).
•  An important aspect of Bereiter’s theory is to
   make a conceptual distinction between learning,
  which operates in the realm of mental states
  (Popper’s World 2), and knowledge building,
  which operates in the realm of theories and
  ideas (Popper’s World 3).
           Knowledge Forum (KF, see www.learn.motion.com)
“Negotiations” metaphor
Since 1990…
The social-constructive learning has been illustrated with
the “negotiations” metaphor (Mayer,1996).
According to this metaphor
knowledge is always built
in the dialogue where the actors
create shared knowledge of each
others’knowledge, that enables
shared activity and supports
individual knowledge creation.
Community role in learning
•  The development of content alone does not lead to
   more effective learning and there is the need to
   structure and foster learning environments to enable
   communities to develop.
•  Learning happens through mediating artefacts
   within a framework of activity within a wider
   socio-cultural context of the rules of the
  community.
“Participation” metaphor
•  Social-constructivist learning has been illustrated
   with the participation metaphor (Sfard, 1998) that
   suggests that all learners are part of communities
   of practice that have certain common knowledge
   and skills (Lave ja Wenger).
•  Learning in the communities of practice is directed
   from the older members of the
   community towards the new
   members who as a result of
   learning move from the
   peripherial areas of the system
   towards the core of the
   community and become themselves
   the experts who can transfer the
   community practice.
“Communities of Practice”




Raub, S. (2002). Communities of Practice: A New Challenge for Human
Resources Management, Research and Practice in Human Resource
Management, 10(2), 16-35.
Knowledge is “embedded in
Engeström, 1999
                practices”
•  Human beings do not live in a vacuum but are embedded
   in their sociocultural context, and that their behavior
   cannot be understood independently of that context.
•  Human activity is mediated through the conceptual
   and material cultural artifacts people use.
•  The participants focus on reconceptualizing their own
   activity system in relation to their shared objects of
   activity, both the objects and the existing scripts are
   reconceptualized; the activity system is transformed; and
   new motives and objects for the activity system are
   created.
•  Knowledge is always embedded in practices, in
   contrast to the mentalistic tradition of “knowledge in the
   head”.
“Innovative learning”
•  Innovative learning and knowledge advancement are
   characterized as cyclical and iterative processes, which
   have several implications.
•  Knowledge creation often requires sustained periods of
   time and is not correctly described by traditional narratives
   of heroic individuals making ingenious discoveries through
   sudden moments of insight.
•  Moreover, knowledge creation is not linear (Engeström,
   1987) but a process of ambiguity and “creative
   chaos” (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995), involving the sense of
   progress.
•  Knowledge creation does not start from scratch but is a
   process of transforming and developing— sometimes
   in a radical way— existing ideas and practices.
                                         Hakkarainen et al., 2004
Knowledge creation in organisations




                 Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)
Principles of social-constructivist
      learning environment
•  Learners build their own mental structures by
   interacting with the real environment.
•  Learners have access to resources and expertise and
   they can sequence the learning activity according to
   their own needs.
•  This enables to develop more engaging and student-
   centered, active and authentic learning environments.
•  Toolkits and other support systems guide and inform
   users through a process of activities.
                          (Duffy and Jonassen)
Principles of social-constructivist
         learning environments
•  Learning takes place in communication acts where
   the information is transmissed, processed,
   recombinated, contrasted in problem-solving
   situations.
•  The cognition is always distributed, this leads to
   the construction of shared knowledge between
   individuals and the surrounded information-rich
  environment of resources and relationships.
Complexity of thinking operations
                                                                                      Social-constructivist learning

intergrated knowledge                                                                     Cases and problems
Complex skills and

                                                                                           shared knoweledge
                                                                                        construction and expertise
                                                                                      inquiry and decision-making

                                                                            Cognitive learning

                                                                                e-content,
                                                                        drill program or tutorial
                                                                              assesment test
Basic skills
knowledge




                                                             Behavioural learning

                        conditioning                                       transmissing             constructing
                                                                   Teaching paradigm
Self-directed and lifelong and
  networked learning in digital
         open ecosystems


•  Inimene õpib hällist kunni hauani. – Man
   learns from cradle to the tomb.
“Self-directing” metaphor
•  ’Self-directed learning’ describes a process
   by which individuals take the initiative,
   with our without the assistance of others, in
   diagnosing their learning needs, formulating
   learning goals, identify human and material
   resources for learning, choosing and
   implement appropriate learning strategies,
   and evaluating learning outcomes.
   (Knowles, 1972)“
“Connectivist knowledge”
              metaphor
•  A property of one entity must lead to or become a
   property of another entity in order for them to be
   considered connected; the knowledge that results
   from such connections is connective knowledge. The
   act of learning is one of creating an external
   network of nodes – where we connect and form
   information and knowledge sources.
•  The pipe is more important than the content in the
   pipe. ‘Know where’ and ‘know who’ are more
   important today that ‘knowing what’ and
   ‘how’ (Siemens, 2006).
“Free-floating” metaphor
              by Steven Weinberg
Constructivism has been illustrated by using the “free floating”
metaphor that emphasises that the rules to construct individual
knowledge as well as the paths of learning are unpredictable in
advance.


The “free-floating” idea
has recently been used in elearning
to describe the knowledge-
management: “this is the
beast that is combining
the e-learning practices with the free-floating knowledge created and
shared by learning organisations during their activities (Barron, 2000)”
“Rhizomic” metaphor
•  Rhizomic metaphor describes the endless connections in the
   structure of knowledge, culture, language, and thinking that
   is common to social-constructivist learning.
•  Differently from the roots of the
   tree that serve as the controlling
   spot for the whole tree, the
   rhizome has many
   connection-points, it has no
   starting- or endingpoint, it is an
   intermediate being, always in
   between two spots, describing
   the alliance, the connection with
   the idea: ..more..and more..and more…
Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari: "Rhizome" (1976), “A Thousand Plateaus” (1980)
Ecosystem metaphor and adaptive
              learning
 •  Learning in open learning ecosystems is the
    process in which learner and the system
    (community, culture) detects and corrects
    errors in order to fit and be responsive.
                       accumulation

Knowledge,                                     Learning niche
ideas, PLE-                                    for a
configurations                                 community/
and learning                                   culture
approaches                              NETWORK OF LEARNERS
                 LEARNER
                           adaptation
“Ubiquitous learning”
             metaphor
                              Mobile learning has
                              ubiquitous ("anytime,
                              anywhere“) nature.




Ubiquity is the ability to be present everywhere or at
several places at once. The term is derived from Latin ubique
which means everywhere.                         Wikipedia
Possibilities for ubiquitous learning




                         (Patten et al., 2006)
Individual in digital ecosystem
ADAPTING TO THE COMMUNITY NICHE
                                     DIRECT PATHS TO COMMUNITY MEMBERS
       COMMUNITY
                                     AND KNOWLEDGE


               KNOWLEDGE NETWORK              SOCIAL NETWORK

                SEMANTIC NAVIGATION          COMMUNITY BROWSING
                  NAVIGATING IN NICHE     SWARMING
 MASHING
           REMIXING

              CO-CREATING
                                         PARTICIPATORY SURVEILLANCE
                                        SOCIAL NAVIGATION
                      INTEROPERABLE TOOLS     SOFTWARE 2
                SOFTWARE 1


                                  PERSONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
                                                            Pata, 2010
Principles of learning technologies
        in open digital ecosystems
•  facilitating learning as a process of navigating, growing and
   pruning connections and interactions within distributed
   networks, and generating coherence, resonance and
   synchronization in knowledge (Siemens, 2012).
•  engaging self-directed and self-organized learners and
   leading practitioners in the field
•  fostering open enrollment, open curriculum, open and
   partially learner-defined learning goals and -outcomes, the
   usage of open resources and open learning environment, and
   the enabled open monitoring of learning activities (Kop,
   2011)
Changes in the focus of learning
                  technologies
           1975          1985           1990                                2005
                                                                     Being embodied into self-
Acquiring knowledge             Reconstructing knowledge             organizing knowledge
De-contextualized knowledge     Learning in authentic context        ecosystem

              Other-directed learning                           Self-directed learning

       Memorizing alone                 Constructing socially         Adapting to the community

Drill programs and tutorials   Forums,                               Personal learning environments
                               learning management systems           Personal networks
                                                                     Communities
                               Authentic simulations                 Virtual worlds

 Predetermined closed learning environment             Self-organizing open learning environment

              Institutionally owned                                   Public

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Pedaspectsoflearntechn kak6003a

  • 1. Pedagogical aspects of learning technologies Lecture for KAK6003 Kai Pata
  • 2. Contents Leading questions: •  What proverbs and metaphors have been used for describing learning? •  Which learning theories are behind these proverbs and metaphors? •  How are learning theories related with instructional designs?
  • 3. Estonian proverbs about learning •  Kes õpib, see ka teab. – Who will study that will know. •  Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta. _You cannot put wisdom into the head with the ladle. •  Harjutamine teeb meistriks. – Practicing makes you a master. •  Töö õpetab tegijat. – Work teaches the doer. •  Töö õpetab iseennast. – Labour teaches itself.
  • 4. Estonian proverbs about learning •  Ela õppimise tarvis ja õpi elamise tarvis. – Live for learning and learn for living. •  Inimene õpib hällist kunni hauani. – Man learns from cradle to the tomb. •  Mida Juku ei õpi, seda Juhan ei tea. – What Juku does not learn, Juhan will not know.
  • 5. Some metaphors about learning •  Planting flowers - A seed is planted in my mind which I nurture with water and sun in the faith that it will sprout and grow. •  Being a detective - It's all about uncovering the facts, looking for clues and asking the right questions until the whole mystery makes sense. •  A quest - I'm searching for that illusive something and every step I take brings me closer to what I need to know, but I never get there ... it's a continuous journey.
  • 6. Discussing proverbs and metaphors of learning •  Think of one proverb from your country, that describes Learning. •  What is your leading metaphor for learning? •  Write each of them on the paper clips. •  We will organize them according to the learning theories later on.
  • 7. Learning theories – why and how we learn? •  Learning theory is the set of principles about learning: –  consisting of the descriptions what initiates learning –  how learning process proceeds, –  and what is the result of learning (Driscoll, 1994). •  Learning theories describe the essence of learning and predict the results of learning. But… •  Learning theories are general and give few concrete guidelines how to implement these in certain situations.
  • 8. Behavioural learning Harjutamine teeb meistriks. – Practicing makes you a master. Töö õpetab tegijat. – Work teaches the doer. Töö õpetab iseennast. – Labour teaches itself.
  • 9. “Black box” metaphor Skinner (1950) introduced behavioural learning theory: “A science of behavior must eventually deal with behavior in its relation to certain manipulable variables.
  • 10. Principles of behaviourism ‘conditioning reflex’ Pavlov provided the basis of behaviourism highlighting the importance of stimulus for learning. Neutral Stimulus (NS) => No Response (NR) NS + Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) => Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) => Conditioned Response (CR) Pavlov dog
  • 11. Principles of behavioural Skinner, 1950: learning 1. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") 3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning Skinner box
  • 12. “Response strenghtening”metaphor 1900-1950 Learning as response strenghtening Teacher gives punishment and rewards, student reacts with teacher defined behaviour Drill, tutorial, assessment test centered learning
  • 13. General educational implications of behaviorism Emphasis on behavior: students should be active respondents… …people are most likely to learn when they actually have a chance to behave. Student learning must be evaluated… …only measurable behavior changes can confirm that learning has taken place.
  • 14. Drill and practice •  Repetition of stimulus-response habits strengthens those habits. •  …Promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice. •  …Refers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more complex learning tasks or physical education games and sports. •  …Involves repetition of specific skills. •  To be meaningful to learners, the skills built through drill-and- practice should become the building blocks for more meaningful learning. •  Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool.
  • 15. Proverbs about behavioral learning •  Harjutamine teeb meistriks. – Practicing makes you a master. •  Töö õpetab tegijat. – Work teaches the doer. •  Töö õpetab iseennast. – Labour teaches itself. •  Which of your proverbs and metaphors are associated with behavourism?
  • 16. Advantages of drill programs •  personalized •  help learners master DRILL program ABC materials at their own pace •  recognition of the type of skill being developed •  mainly for the beginning learner •  use of appropriate strategies to develop •  for students who are competencies experiencing learning •  use of games to increase problems motivation •  interactive nature •  provide feedback to students
  • 17. Cognitive learning Kes õpib, see ka teab. – Who will study that will know. Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta. - You cannot put wisdom into the head with the ladle.
  • 18. “Information processing” metaphor 1960-1970 learning as information processing (Mayer,1996). Teacher is transmissing knowledge, students are receivers of knowledge Textbooks and other content management systems.
  • 19. “Knowledge acquisition” metaphorAnna Sfard 1998 •  According to the “knowledge-acquisition” metaphor learning is the construction of well-organised knowledge structures that provide students with the means of interacting with the important aspects of the problem situations. •  Acquiring scientific knowledge takes place through conceptual change where intuitive knowledge is replaced/modified with scientifically correct knowledge. •  “Knowledge acquisition” metaphor is based on the idea that our brain is a container and the learning process is filling this container (Bereiter, 2002).
  • 20. “Brain as the computer” metaphor Computer has information inputs and action outputs similarly as we receive signals from the environment with our sensory organs and react with behavours that emerge in response to the outside signals Information is recorded, decoded and processed both inside the computer and the brain, this processing provides the output behaviours. information reaction
  • 21. Model of cognitive architecture
  • 22. “Dual-coding” theory A dual coding theory of learning from visual and verbal materials. (Mayer, 1993)
  • 23. “Cognitive load” theory •  Provides guidelines to assist in the presentation of information in such a way that helps learners to optimize their intellectual performance. •  Is based on the assumptions of: –  an effectively unlimited longterm memory and –  a limited working memory (e.g., Baddeley, 1986), •  Aims at designing instructions that do not overburden the learners’ cognitive capabilities.
  • 24. Proverbs about cognitivel learning •  Kes õpib, see ka teab. – Who will study that will know. •  Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta. - You cannot put wisdom into the head with the ladle. •  Which of your proverbs and metaphors are associated with behavourism?
  • 25. Constructivist and social- constructivist learning Ela õppimise tarvis ja õpi elamise tarvis. – Live for learning and learn for living. Mida Juku ei õpi, seda Juhan ei tea. – What Juku does not learn, Juhan will not know.
  • 26. “Knowledge construction” metaphor 1980-1990 learning as knowledge construction (Mayer, 1996). guided inquiry discussions Student is constructing knowledge on the basis of earlier knowledge in real situations, teacher is guiding the learning process
  • 27. “Discovery” metaphor •  Discovery learning is based on the "Aha!“ method. •  Dewey wrote: "There is an intimate and necessary relation between the processes of actual experience and education". •  Bruner believed that students learn best by discovery and that the learner is a problem solver who interacts with the environment testing hypotheses and developing generalizations.
  • 28. “Experiental learning” metaphor •  The foundation of learning is experience. •  Learning is the transformation of our experiences into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values •  Reflection helps to transform the experiences. (Kolb)
  • 30. “Anchoring” metaphor •  Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by the Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford. KNOWLEDGE •  Learning and teaching activities should be designed around an 'anchor' which should be some sort of case-study or problem situation. Adventures of Jasper Woodbury http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasper/preview/AdvJW.html
  • 31. “Knowledge building” metaphor Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994) •  Knowledge building refers to collective work for the advancement and elaboration of conceptual artifacts (product plans, business strategies, marketing plans, theories, ideas, and models) (the world of cultural knowledge). •  An important aspect of Bereiter’s theory is to make a conceptual distinction between learning, which operates in the realm of mental states (Popper’s World 2), and knowledge building, which operates in the realm of theories and ideas (Popper’s World 3). Knowledge Forum (KF, see www.learn.motion.com)
  • 32. “Negotiations” metaphor Since 1990… The social-constructive learning has been illustrated with the “negotiations” metaphor (Mayer,1996). According to this metaphor knowledge is always built in the dialogue where the actors create shared knowledge of each others’knowledge, that enables shared activity and supports individual knowledge creation.
  • 33. Community role in learning •  The development of content alone does not lead to more effective learning and there is the need to structure and foster learning environments to enable communities to develop. •  Learning happens through mediating artefacts within a framework of activity within a wider socio-cultural context of the rules of the community.
  • 34. “Participation” metaphor •  Social-constructivist learning has been illustrated with the participation metaphor (Sfard, 1998) that suggests that all learners are part of communities of practice that have certain common knowledge and skills (Lave ja Wenger). •  Learning in the communities of practice is directed from the older members of the community towards the new members who as a result of learning move from the peripherial areas of the system towards the core of the community and become themselves the experts who can transfer the community practice.
  • 35. “Communities of Practice” Raub, S. (2002). Communities of Practice: A New Challenge for Human Resources Management, Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 10(2), 16-35.
  • 36. Knowledge is “embedded in Engeström, 1999 practices” •  Human beings do not live in a vacuum but are embedded in their sociocultural context, and that their behavior cannot be understood independently of that context. •  Human activity is mediated through the conceptual and material cultural artifacts people use. •  The participants focus on reconceptualizing their own activity system in relation to their shared objects of activity, both the objects and the existing scripts are reconceptualized; the activity system is transformed; and new motives and objects for the activity system are created. •  Knowledge is always embedded in practices, in contrast to the mentalistic tradition of “knowledge in the head”.
  • 37. “Innovative learning” •  Innovative learning and knowledge advancement are characterized as cyclical and iterative processes, which have several implications. •  Knowledge creation often requires sustained periods of time and is not correctly described by traditional narratives of heroic individuals making ingenious discoveries through sudden moments of insight. •  Moreover, knowledge creation is not linear (Engeström, 1987) but a process of ambiguity and “creative chaos” (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995), involving the sense of progress. •  Knowledge creation does not start from scratch but is a process of transforming and developing— sometimes in a radical way— existing ideas and practices. Hakkarainen et al., 2004
  • 38. Knowledge creation in organisations Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)
  • 39. Principles of social-constructivist learning environment •  Learners build their own mental structures by interacting with the real environment. •  Learners have access to resources and expertise and they can sequence the learning activity according to their own needs. •  This enables to develop more engaging and student- centered, active and authentic learning environments. •  Toolkits and other support systems guide and inform users through a process of activities. (Duffy and Jonassen)
  • 40. Principles of social-constructivist learning environments •  Learning takes place in communication acts where the information is transmissed, processed, recombinated, contrasted in problem-solving situations. •  The cognition is always distributed, this leads to the construction of shared knowledge between individuals and the surrounded information-rich environment of resources and relationships.
  • 41. Complexity of thinking operations Social-constructivist learning intergrated knowledge Cases and problems Complex skills and shared knoweledge construction and expertise inquiry and decision-making Cognitive learning e-content, drill program or tutorial assesment test Basic skills knowledge Behavioural learning conditioning transmissing constructing Teaching paradigm
  • 42. Self-directed and lifelong and networked learning in digital open ecosystems •  Inimene õpib hällist kunni hauani. – Man learns from cradle to the tomb.
  • 43. “Self-directing” metaphor •  ’Self-directed learning’ describes a process by which individuals take the initiative, with our without the assistance of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identify human and material resources for learning, choosing and implement appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. (Knowles, 1972)“
  • 44. “Connectivist knowledge” metaphor •  A property of one entity must lead to or become a property of another entity in order for them to be considered connected; the knowledge that results from such connections is connective knowledge. The act of learning is one of creating an external network of nodes – where we connect and form information and knowledge sources. •  The pipe is more important than the content in the pipe. ‘Know where’ and ‘know who’ are more important today that ‘knowing what’ and ‘how’ (Siemens, 2006).
  • 45. “Free-floating” metaphor by Steven Weinberg Constructivism has been illustrated by using the “free floating” metaphor that emphasises that the rules to construct individual knowledge as well as the paths of learning are unpredictable in advance. The “free-floating” idea has recently been used in elearning to describe the knowledge- management: “this is the beast that is combining the e-learning practices with the free-floating knowledge created and shared by learning organisations during their activities (Barron, 2000)”
  • 46. “Rhizomic” metaphor •  Rhizomic metaphor describes the endless connections in the structure of knowledge, culture, language, and thinking that is common to social-constructivist learning. •  Differently from the roots of the tree that serve as the controlling spot for the whole tree, the rhizome has many connection-points, it has no starting- or endingpoint, it is an intermediate being, always in between two spots, describing the alliance, the connection with the idea: ..more..and more..and more… Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari: "Rhizome" (1976), “A Thousand Plateaus” (1980)
  • 47. Ecosystem metaphor and adaptive learning •  Learning in open learning ecosystems is the process in which learner and the system (community, culture) detects and corrects errors in order to fit and be responsive. accumulation Knowledge, Learning niche ideas, PLE- for a configurations community/ and learning culture approaches NETWORK OF LEARNERS LEARNER adaptation
  • 48. “Ubiquitous learning” metaphor Mobile learning has ubiquitous ("anytime, anywhere“) nature. Ubiquity is the ability to be present everywhere or at several places at once. The term is derived from Latin ubique which means everywhere. Wikipedia
  • 49. Possibilities for ubiquitous learning (Patten et al., 2006)
  • 50. Individual in digital ecosystem ADAPTING TO THE COMMUNITY NICHE DIRECT PATHS TO COMMUNITY MEMBERS COMMUNITY AND KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE NETWORK SOCIAL NETWORK SEMANTIC NAVIGATION COMMUNITY BROWSING NAVIGATING IN NICHE SWARMING MASHING REMIXING CO-CREATING PARTICIPATORY SURVEILLANCE SOCIAL NAVIGATION INTEROPERABLE TOOLS SOFTWARE 2 SOFTWARE 1 PERSONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Pata, 2010
  • 51. Principles of learning technologies in open digital ecosystems •  facilitating learning as a process of navigating, growing and pruning connections and interactions within distributed networks, and generating coherence, resonance and synchronization in knowledge (Siemens, 2012). •  engaging self-directed and self-organized learners and leading practitioners in the field •  fostering open enrollment, open curriculum, open and partially learner-defined learning goals and -outcomes, the usage of open resources and open learning environment, and the enabled open monitoring of learning activities (Kop, 2011)
  • 52. Changes in the focus of learning technologies 1975 1985 1990 2005 Being embodied into self- Acquiring knowledge Reconstructing knowledge organizing knowledge De-contextualized knowledge Learning in authentic context ecosystem Other-directed learning Self-directed learning Memorizing alone Constructing socially Adapting to the community Drill programs and tutorials Forums, Personal learning environments learning management systems Personal networks Communities Authentic simulations Virtual worlds Predetermined closed learning environment Self-organizing open learning environment Institutionally owned Public