1. Social Differentiation

2. Social Differentiation
• Differentiation – way in which groups separate
themselves from each other - through appearance or
behaviour
• Can be used to measure ways different social groups
access and consume sport.
• Many sport sociologists have argued recently that the
opportunity to participate actively in sport is stratified
according to socio-cultural characteristics such as race,
gender or class
• E.g. Golf for white, surburban middle classes whilst
boxing multiracial – urban working class males
Chandler et al (2002) – Sport and Physical Education: The Key Concepts

3. Sport is a reflection of society….
• Sport often described as a microcosm of
society
– It reflects in miniature facts of society (Thompson
et al, 2008)
• And may magnify issues as sport is played out
in front of global TV audiences

4. Sport and society……
• Society is stratified – sport reflects this
• Dominant groups in society can exercise power
and control over minority groups
• Discrimination can occur when opportunities
available to the dominant group are not available
to all social groups (Thompson et all 2008)
• Discrimination occurs when prejudice is acted
upon. It can be overt – restricted membership to
sports club or covert – relating to deep seated
belief’s

5. Barriers to Participation
• Split in to two areas:
– Discrimination/disadvantaged minority groups
• Class, Gender, Race, Age, Disability
– Socio-cultural and economic factors

6. Socio-Cultural and economic factors
that affect opportunity, participation,
provision, attitudes and values
• Finance/Income
• Leisure Time
• Time Management
• Education
• Physical Education
• Resources
• Family (+ve & -ve)
• Peer Pressure
• Role Models
• Facilities/Location
• Transport
• Stereotyping
Why are these reasons barriers? Discuss with a partner
and present to the class your reasoning……….

7. Socio-cultural factors affecting talent
individual‟s progression to elite level
• Do they have the support of their family?
More than just financial – need emotional
support and encouragement
• Status of elite sport within their family or
community (not a proper job???)
• Experience at school – did the school
have policies and procedures to identify
and encourage talented sports people?

8. Socio-cultural factors affecting talent
individual‟s progression to elite level
• Financial resources available for equipment,
training facilities, travel expenses, medical
support, coaching costs – not all sports can
provide support – not all get funded!
• Funding status of the sport - does it get
funded by UK Sport?
• Does the country or sport have
infrastructure to develop talent? – Andy
Murray moved to Spain!

9. Socio-cultural factors affecting talent
individual‟s progression to elite level
• Media exposure of sport – is there plenty
of role models to motive aspiring elite
athletes?
• Anti-discrimination policies to prevent
barriers

10. Studies show…….
• The Performance Environment – A study
of the personal, lifestyle and environment
factors that affect sporting performance
(UK Sport, 2006)
• Family involvement with sport, having and
gaining friends through sport – two most
important factors in the early stages of
becoming an elite athlete.

11. What a performer needs to be
successful……………….
• An attitude of resilience and determination
• Strong friendships within sport/training group (Support
structure)
• Balance between training – performing – other elements of life
(e.g. education, family)
• Continuing education (for post sport career and personal
satisfaction)
• Ownership – some control over training and competitions
• A balance between creativity/individuality and use sport
science to plan and devise training and tactics/strategies
• Not being required to specialise in their sport too early!
UK Sport, 2006

12. Social Differentiation
• Refers specifically to disadvantaged Groups
– Class/Socio-economic group
– Gender – women’s sport
– Race
– Age
– Disability
• With any disadvantaged minority there are three
main constraints: OPPORTUNITY, PROVISION AND
ESTEEM

13. Opportunities, Provision, Esteem
• What opportunities are there to participate in
sport? – choice of activity? Time to play? Money
to play? Suitable standard? Acceptable company?
• What provision is there? Varied types?
Accessible? Reasonable cost? Sufficient space?
Equipment? Social Amenities? Coaches available?
Transport?
• Is there enough esteem? Self Confidence? Body
Image of that sport? Media influence?
Stereotypes – Expectations – girls do dance/boys
do rugby? Self-fulfilling prophecy?

14. Royal and Ancient to vote on women
members at St Andrews
The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews is urging its 2,500 members to vote in favour of abolishing its
men-only policy, the BBC has learned.
The club, which was formed more than two centuries ago, has only ever allowed men to join.
A vote on proposals to change that rule is scheduled for September.
In advance of that meeting, the Royal and Ancient has written to its members urging them to support a change
in policy which would allow women members. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club has been the guardian of the
rules of the game since 1754, although in 2004 it devolved responsibility for the administration of the game
and the Open to the newly-formed R&A.
"It's a big day for the club," R&A chief executive Peter Dawson told BBC Sport. "We've done this really because
of our governance role in the game. "We think it's very good for the governance of golf that we make this
move. Sport has been changing, society has been changing and golf is part of that. "We think it's time this
change is made."
If the vote goes against women members, Dawson said that would be an "undesirable" result. He added: "The
early indication is that there is great support. We will have to see what happens."
Scotland's First Minister Alex Salmond boycotted last year's Open at all-male club Muirfield, while Open venues
Royal St George's and Troon also bar women members.
However, in 2012 the Augusta National Club, which hosts the Masters in the United States every year, allowed
women to join for the first time in its 80-year history. March 2014 – bbc.co.uk

15. “There are a variety of barriers affecting
equal access for all in sport at all levels.”
• Write a minimum two page report discussing this
statement with particular reference to either gender, race,
class, disability or age (you will be allocated one area)
• You have 30 minutes to read/research and 30 minutes to
write your report – to be handed in at end of lesson
• Make sure you give examples of the barriers
• Give examples where NGBs have done something to
overcome a barrier
• Use the available textbooks, moodle mark schemes and
googlebooks
• Needs to be of a high standard – you will be sharing you
findings

16. “There are a variety of barriers affecting
equal access for all in sport at all levels.”
• Gender
• Alex
• Sam
• Ben
• Sameed
• Brad
• Jessica
•Race/Ethnicity
• Marcus
• Dom
• Daniel
• Mac
• Charlotte
• Disability
• Declan
• Joshua
• James
• Conal
• Katherine

17. Gender – key points
• Sex or gender discrimination….
• Sex – whether biologically male or female
• Gender - culturally determined roles that men
and women play in a particular society
• Sexism – discrimination based on sex – especially
the oppression of women by men
• Women’s progression to elite level is affected by
issues of sexism – usually stereotypical views of
the strengths and qualities of women in a sport
and the gender role that women are expected to
fulfil in society

18. Gender - key point
• Women’s role in society is often seen as conforming to
a set image – that of femininity and linked to the
stereotypical roles of housewife and mother.
• Therefore the amount of time and type of sport
pursued must adhere to this trait!
• Sex discrimination not just a sport thing but a society
issue (sport is microcosm of society)
• Accepted assumption that women have inferior
abilities and physical weaknesses!
• Sport is aggressive and you show domination – not
very feminine traits!

19. Evidence of discrimination
• Olympics – more men’s events than women’s
• Team GB (Athens) – More men than women
(31% women)
• More likely to be in debt if a female athlete
(funding issues?)
• BOA and IOA – approx 14% of members are
female
• Women’s elite football – semi-pro

20. Evidence of discrimination
• 2007 – Wimbledon finally gave equal prize
money (last of all Grand Slams to do so)
• Golf – European toours massive differences in
prize money (£82 million v £10 million)

21. Why is this the case?
• Women’s elite sport less social status than men (De-
motivates and sport still seen as male dominated)
• Sport traditionally viewed as a male preserve (Holt, 1989) –
long history of discrimination. Rules and administration
male dominated.
• Sport has been defined as “an institution created by and for
men” (Messner and Sabo, 1990)
• Battle to be allowed to legally participate in some sports
e.g.
– Marathon – 1973 (1984 for Olympic Marathon)
– Wrestling – 1987
– Triple jump – 1994
– Boxing – 1996
– Weight lifting - 200

22. Why is this the case?
• Sport remains mainly a masculine world at all
levels
• Men play and watch more than women – ask
yourself why?
• Sport visibly reproduces the ideology of male
supremacy

23. Why is this the case?
• Less socially acceptable for women to spend time
needed to train to become an elite athlete
(disincentive)
• Media portrayal – Jessica Ennis focus on
pregnancy or what wearing. Men don’t get same
treatment
• Female athletes who develop physically have
their sexuality questioned by media – creates fear
of homophobia among young athletes whatever
their sexual orientation may be

24. Why is this the case?
• Women in rugby and football often seen as
unfeminine and had their sexuality
questioned!

25. Why is this the case?
• Some times face both sex discrimination and
racial discrimination – In 2004, Groups in
Bangladesh forced the cancellation of the
Women’s National Wrestling Championship
• Women’s sport is less well reported – harder
to get sponsorship/funding issues – also same
for tournament organisers

26. What being done to combat?
• UK – legislation to outlaw sex discrimination
• Sport England and UK Sport set equity targets for
all NGBs
• Women’s Sport and Fitness Foundation –
pressure group – improve participation and
opportunities for progression to elite level – tries
to influence sport policy (for example)
• There is a gradual acceptance of women in sport
– athletes such as Paula Radcliffe – running faster
than many of her male equivalents – and more
positive media coverage

27. Positives….
• Women’s football is fastest growing sport in
this country…most popular in USA
• Football has overtaken netball as most
popular team sport in UK (for females)
• Things are changing slowly

28. Still issues to address:
• Lack of role models
• Restricted opportunities in certain sports
• Trivialisation of women’s sport e.g. how they look
rather than achievements
• Certain religious restrictions
• Lack of crèche facilities
• Lower pay and prize money
• Poor self-image
• Poor media coverage

29. Chrissie Wellington , who won her fourth Ironman world
championship title in October, not nominated
Not 1 female athlete from
any sport made the final
list

30. Launched in 2008
with a strong focus on
living an active,
healthy lifestyle,
merged with the
penchant for the
latest fashion trends,
the 52-page monthly
magazine Sportsister
has managed to
capture an audience
of 50,000 in just 48
months.

33. Gender Tagging
• Netball is for women and Rugby is for boys!

34. Sexploitation
• Applies to forms of marketing, promotion or attempts to
gain media coverage which focus attention on the sexual
attributes of female athletes, especially the visibility of
their bodies.
• In a context of sexploitation, the value of the female athlete
is judged primarily in terms of her body type and
attractiveness, rather than for the qualities that define her
as an athlete.
• This creates an ironic situation for elite athletes. In order to
attract media and sponsor interest, many female athletes
resort to marketing themselves or their sport for their
‘voyeuristic potential’.
• However, if this approach is successful, the increased
interest is not on their performances and successes, but on
their sex appeal. (AIS, 2014)

35. Race
• Refers to the Physical characteristics of an
individual.

36. Ethnicity
• „The cultural heritage of a particular group‟
(such as language, religion, interests and
family structure) and not merely biological
features.
• Race still tends to be used by the media
when discussing such issues

37. Racism
• Is a set of beliefs and ideas based on the
assumption that races have distinctive cultural
characteristics determined by heredity factors,
and that this endows some races with intrinsic
superiority
(Thompson, Wiggins-James and James, 2008)

38. Racial Discrimination
• Any distinction, exclusion, restriction or
preference based on race, colour,
descent, or national or ethnic origin which
has the purpose or effect of nullifying or
impairing the recognition, enjoyment or
exercise, on an equal footing, of human
rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural or any
other field of public life.
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UH-OCHR, 1966

39. Prejudice
• An extreme attitude
• “…an unjustified or incorrect attitude
(usually negative) towards an individual
based solely on the individual‟s
membership of a social
group.”(SimplyPsychology.org, 2011)

40. Stereotype
• “...a fixed, over generalized belief about a
particular group or class of people.”
(Cardwell, 1996).
• E.g. stereo type that those of Asian ethnicity are
often perceived as weak and fragile, lacking in
stamina and poorly coordinated. There is also a
perception that they are constrained by their
religious beliefs and parental attitudes. Opposite for
African-Caribbean – Asian young people have been
traditionally channelled away from sports with A-C’s
in.

41. Participation in sport

42. Participation in sport
• Asian participation in sport is much lower
than for other minority groups especially
for women.
• There is an under-representation in a vast
majority of sports expect hockey, cricket
and badminton.

43. Equal numbers of all backgrounds?
• Significant differences in the numbers
representing ethnic minority groups at elite
level.
• 25% of English footballers are from UK
Caribbean or African origins
• Almost none are from UK Asian (Can we
name any?)
• http://www.asianfootballawards.co.uk/afa-
awards/#.U2QLx4FdXUg

44. • In April 2004 Rehman made his debut for Fulham, becoming the first
British-Asian footballer to play in the Premier League, but that is not
all Rehman has managed to do. - See more at:
http://thepositive.com/the-first-british-asian-footballer-in-the-premier-
league/#sthash.QUya0YuM.dpuf

45. In UK Sport..
• Athletics few Asian sprinters and jumpers
• In Tennis - UK top 10 – 20% (Badminton
similar)
• In general, members of the UK Asian
community are under represented in top
level sport

46. Why should there be this variation in
representation?
• The role model effect
– existence of appropriate role models encourages others to
take part
– A lack of role models therefore deters people from
participation
• Pushed in to the wrong sports (Channelling)
– Preconceived mistaken ideas of what certain
ethnic groups are better at – have a ‘genetic
advantage’ so young people pushed in to only
certain sports (no scientific evidence to back up
these claims/stereotyping)

47. Why the variation….
• In sports where achievement is based on objective
measurements e.g. athletics (height, speed, distance)
harder to discriminate/select based on prejudice
• Socioeconomic groups from which the largest
proportion of elite footballers and athletes comes have
a higher than average percentage of members of the
UK’s Caribbean and African communities.
• Conversely our elite tennis squads have no members
from those socio-economic or ethnic minority groups.

48. Issues of centrality and racial stacking
• Centrality – Grusky (1963)
• Seen to designate how ‘close a member is to the
centre of the group’s interaction, how fequently
that member interacts to a greater or lesser
range with other team mates, and the degree to
which other team members must co-ordinate
tasks and other activities with other members.”
• Key element of centrality is leadership and
degree of responsibility for game outcome (Foy
and McElvogue (1970)

49. Issue of centrality and racial stacking
• Central positions – those with greatest
amount of interaction with team mates e.g.
quarter-back in American Football, Guard and
centre in Basketball, Baseball – pitcher and
catcher
• No central positions – little interaction with
team mates – few decisions regarding nature
of the game

50. Issue of centrality and racial stacking
• In North American Sport – there has been a
tradition of over-representation in non-central
positions – reverse for white players
• Sport scientists initially thought certain races had
physical advantages in certain sports (incorrectly)
• Due to racial discrimination and racial
stereotyping - black players are more commonly
found in non-central positions
• This is known as Racial Stacking
The Sociology of Sport and Physical Education: An Introductory Reader
edited by Anthony Laker

51. Racial Stacking
• This racial folklore has helped frame
participation in certain sports leading to
– a self-fulfilling prophecy

52. Rooney Rule
• Lack of opportunities* in coaching and
management
• Intro of Rooney Rule in American Football
• “Before the Rooney Rule there were six black NFL
head coaches in more than 80 years.
• In the decade since 12 have been hired.
• They are succeeding, too: at least one minority
head coach or general manager has made the
Super Bowl every year since 2006.”
Guardian 29th September 2013 – Sean Ingle

53. Rooney Rule
• The Rooney Rule requires National Football
League teams to interview minority
candidates for head coaching and senior
football operation jobs.
• No quota or preference given to minorities in
the hiring of candidates

54. Social mobility
• Sport always seen as a route to social mobility
• Traditionally, black families in working class areas
of Britain participated in sports that required
minimal equipment and facilities (rags to riches
concept).
• African-Caribbean’s have been very successful in
British sport especially in Athletics, boxing rugby
and football.
• Success has led to many role models being
created and barriers being broken down.

55. Age
• Too old………….
• Too young…………….

56. Disability
• A person with a disability has some form of
impairment which affects their ability to
engage in an activity
• An impairment is a loss or deficiency of the
body or mind that affects the functioning of
the body
• Disability or differently abled
AS/A2 AQA Physical Education – Bevis & Murray - 2009

57. Disability Types
• Mobility impairments (skeletal and disfiguring
impairments)
• Sensory impairments (hearing and sight)
• Mental impairments (learning difficulties and
other psychological impairments)
• Other impairments (language, cognitive or
perceptual impairments)

58. Disability – profile system
• Complex scoring system that develops a performer
profile score based on impairment
• In each sport – different profiles are grouped together
to allow fair competition
• Five broad categories:
– Amputees (at least one major joint missing)
– Cerebral Palsy
– Wheelchair
– Vision impaired
– Les autres (e.g. dwarfism or others that don’t fit the
categories)

59. Participation
• Active People Survey 2006 – showed approx. 9% of people
with a longstanding illness or disability regularly participated
in sport compared to 23% who do not have any
disability/illness
• Weekly participation in sport among people with a long-term
limiting illness, disability or infirmity is at 18.5%. That’s around
half of the general population level at 39.2%

60. Barriers to Participation
• Safety concerns (is sport too dangerous?),
• Stereotyping/social attitudes,
• Lack of specialist knowledge/coaching
• Reduced access to facilities
• Lack of media coverage and role models.

61. Why is there such a difference?
• Some disabilities too severe
• Disabled access in sports facilities has improved
but may limit (DDA Act – changing this)
• Stereotyping and inaccurate assumptions
• Despite DDA often the ‘invisible’ minority that are
ignored or less high profile
• Lack of status and public recognition – lack of
TV/media coverage – coverage focuses on
disability and not on the quality of sport
• Lack of role models

62. Elite sport
• Funded in same way as all athletes:
– World Class Performance Pathways
– TASS – age extended to 35 (Why? Discuss)
– SportsAid – supports 25 disabled sports (50 non-disabled
sports)
• Agencies supporting disabled athletes
– British Paralympic Association
– UK Sport
– Sport England
• Talent Id
– A Vision for Rio: Para-Swimming
– Chasing The Rio Dream: Para-Archery

63. Steps to overcome inequalities
• Campaigns (such as ‘Kick It Out’, ‘Show Racism and Red
Card’, ‘Nike Girls in Sport’, ‘Changing the Game for
Girls’ and ‘Every Body Active’) and education
programmes in schools and communities.
• Increased media coverage and creation of role models
(for example, David Weir and Ellie Simmonds in
relation to disability sport).

64. Steps to overcome inequalities
• Development of Equality and Equity Policies and
dissemination of examples of best practice through
National Governing Bodies.
• Inclusion of disabled athletes in the Olympic Games
(London 2012).
• Tougher penalties and punishment (e.g. Luis Suarez –
eight match ban and fine).
• Encouraging more minority groups to take on coaching
and managerial roles (Rooney Rule in American
Football).
• New technology has allowed more disabled athletes to
compete especially at the elite level.
• Implementation of Discrimination Acts.