1. SCIENTIFIC WRITING
AS A
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

2. Introduction
• Scientific Writing is a primary method by which an
information is disseminated.
• It is used to inform, convince ,and entertain.
• There should be a motivation for reading from the
beginning till the end.
• Organized and general flow should be there.

3. A basic scientific writing may have…
• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Materials and methods
• Results and discussion
• Table and figures
• Citations
• Bibliography
• Appendices
Format can vary depending upon
the type of scientific writing

4. Different forms of scientific writing
• Articles in journals
• Research notes and reports
• Review articles
• Monographs
• Thesis
• Dissertations
• Bibliography
• Book chapters and articles
• Editorials
• Writing for grants

5. Articles in Journals
• Research can be seen as a product that must be sold
to the target audience in the form of articles
• Key people who accepts the article for publishing are
editor in chief, editor, and the peer reviewers
• After publication-A well written article attracts the
readers and other scientists will cite the article in
their research papers.

6. A scientific article should consider following
ideas…
• The problem that is being addressed
• Significance of the article
• The way of studying the problem
• The results that is obtained
• Implications of the results
• Potential newness to the scientific community
• Target audience
• Simplicity in the writing-Avoid unnecessary jargons

7. • Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Methodology
• Results and discussions
• Summary and conclusion
• References

8. Title
• A good title is defined with fewest possible words
that adequately describes the contents of the paper
• Avoid abbreviations, short forms chemical formulas
• Should neither be too long nor be too short
• Syntax must be considered
• Concise, meaningful, and informative
• Avoid wate words like ‘studies on’, ‘investigation on’
, ‘a’ , ‘an’, ‘using’…

9. Abstract
• Summary of information in a document
• Clear, concise and simple as it is the first part of the
manuscript
• Written after completion of paper
• Should not exceed 250 words
• Some journals write abstract in paragraphs
• Use past tense
• Should not cite references
• Should not present any information /conclusion that is not
stated in the paper
• Accurate with respect to figures quoted in the main text
• Abstract should be followed by key words.

10. Introduction
• Justifies the significance of the subject
• It is sensible to write the introduction in a form of a
logical funnel- general aspects are written first and
then narrow it down to details(Bem,2003)
• Purpose of the article should be mentioned at last in
the introduction
• It should present the nature and scope of the
problem
• Review pertinent literature

11. • State the method of investigation
• State principal results and conclusions
• Use past tense when refering to a work that
has already been published
• Define any specific terms/abbreviations if it is
used in the article.

12. Materials and methods
• Research method should be precisely explained so
that it is replicable
• Important to describe clearly how the research was
conducted
• Provide full details
• If the peer reviewer has doubts that experiments
could be repeated-manuscripts will be rejected
• Organize methodology under subheadings
• Write in past tense

13. • Materials-Source of subject,number of
individuals(sample size),gender,age, weight.
Criteria for selection should be described.
If chemical experiments are used ,include technical
specifications and method of preparation
• Methods-Must be clear,precise and concise. If new
methods are used it should be described.

14. • When research have been completed ,the results
obtained should be analysed.
• Result should include focus of the article
• Result should be presented in a logical order so that
easy for an outsider to understand
• Lists, illustrations, tables, graphs should be prented.
• Discussion- explains and contemplates the result. It
cn be either be a part of result or a separate section
Results and discussions

15. Summary and Conclusion
• One of the core element of the article
• It should have a paragraph with introduction, results,
significance or practical implications of the study,
limitations, Recommended topics for further study.
• Should be inline with the previous sections of the
article.

16. References
• Standardized way of acknowledging the sources of
information and ideas that you have used in the
journal article
• A list of all references used in the text must be
written.
• Harvard format(name and year system)
• Alphabetical arrangement
• In citation order

17. Research notes and Reports
• People who do scientific research should write
report of their findings by taking research notes,
particularly if they add to or contradict to previous
ideas.
• 2 important reasons to write research notes an
reports
– They want to gather information presented
– They want to know if the findings are legitimate
•It clearly communicate the idea to the target group/
community/researchers who work with similar topics.

18. • Research notes are short description of current
research findings
• the practice of recording information captured from
another source. By taking notes, the writer records
the essence of the information, freeing their mind
from having to recall everything
Write what kind of notes/ideas you need to record.
a. Focus on topic, review from books, journals,
encyclopedia etc)
b. Make primary list of topics that you would
expect to find in your reading.
c. Choose a component that interests you and
formulate research questions.

19. Avoid too long and too short sentences- Use short
declarative sentence
Write in your personal style but it should be precise
Use words like “since” instead of “because”, “ while”
instead of “although”
Avoid jargon and be brief.

20. • Report is a clearly structure document that present
information about your study
• Research reports are produced by a variety of sources,
ranging from small firms to large organizations.
• Report types
1. Analytical reports-
– Focus on investigations into events, organizations,
situations, issues
– Provide reader information that helps in decision making
and in taking further actions
– Used in social sciences,business ,engineering etc

21. 2. Progress reports
Assessment that take place during a project/process
that conveys details like
• what subgoals have been accomplished,
• what resources have been expanded,
• what problems have been encountered and
• whether the project is expected to be completed on
time within the budget
3. Scientific reports
Gives an account on what has happened in a practical
session or as a part of an experiment
Used in science based researcher.

22. Sequence of writing a report
Title
Abstracts
Introduction
Material and methods
Results and discussions
References
Appendices

23. Review articles
• Review article is a constructive analysis of the
literature in a specific field through classification,
analysis ,and comparison
• A scientific text relying on previously published
literature or data
• Functions
– To organize literature
– To evaluate literature
– To identify patterns and trends in the literature
– To synthesize literature
– To identify research gaps and recommend new
research area

24. Audience of review article
– Experts in scientific research area
– Students or novice researchers
– Decision makers
Types of Review article(Based on methodogical approach)
1. Narrative review article
• Selected studies are compared and summarized on
the basis of the authors experience, existing theories
and models.
• It is written in a qualitative basis rather than
quantitative basis

25. 2. Best evidence review-A focus on selected studies combined
with systematic methods of study-selection on result
exploration
3. Systematic review-Findings from various individual studies
are analyzed statistically by strict procedures.
Types of Review article(Based on objectives)
1. Status quo review- Presentation of most current research
for a given topic or field of research
2. History review- Development of a field research over time
3. Issue review- Investigation of an issue (in a point of
disagreement or a question)
4. Theory or model review- Introduction of a new theory
in a specific field of research

26. Length of a review article
Review articles vary in considerable length -8000 to 40,000 words
Elements of reviw article
1.Title-
• Informative,short and concise-
• length -8-12 words(Davis,2005)
• “It may include message of the article”(Gustavii,2003)
2.List of authors-
• Every person that has contributed to the literature search,l
exploration or writing process should me mentioned
• Order of authors-The first author has done most of the research
Last author usually coordinated the project and had original idea.
Alphabetically ordered /in a order of involvement

27. 3. Abstract
• Informs the main objectives ,methods and
materials used ,results and discussions
• Length- 200-250 words
4. Table of contents- Shows the organization of the
text under different sections.(Sometimes it is given
in the beginning)
5. Introduction
• Subject background-general topic,issue of concern
• Problem(trends,new perspectives,gaps,conflicts or
a single problem is indicated

28. 6. Materials and methods
• Enables motivated researchers to repeat the review
• Contain data sources,stratergies used,selection
criteria,statistical methodss,nuber of methods screened
and number of studies included
• Past tense shall be used
7. Conclusions
• Answers the research questions set in the introduction
• Includes implications and interpretation of the findings
• Present/past tense shall be used
• Length-5-10% core text

29. 8.Acknowlegements
• Expresses gratitude to people who helped with the
literature search, structuring of the material or in he
writing process
• Expresses gratitude to funding organizations, and
funding programs are specified
• Full name of funding organizations/people/program
• Present tense or past tense can be used

30. Monographs
• A monograph are specialist publications dealing with
a specific topic generally in a form of book
• Research monograph- “Scholarly treatise”-Extremely
detailed essay or book covering a specific or limited
subject.
• Professionals ,ay produce it to show their expertise
and gain credibility and as result , advance a higher
position

31. Key contents of a monograph
• Share the basic elements no matter what the topics
covered
• Identify the purpose of a research and main question the
author was trying to answer ,as well as what the author
expects in the result of his research.
• Outlines the results and discussions- implications and
applications the work has
• The last element is references
Length and construction time
• Length depends upon the details -100pages approximately
• Author may take several weeks/months to write a short
one and may take a year or more for a longer version

32. Authorship of a monograph
• Usually only one author is behind a monograph-two can
collaborate if they have been carrying a research together
• If there are multiple authors -The author whose name first
appears is primary author or research leader.
• Collaboration lends to additional expertise and ideas to the
project-but make it more challenging logistically and may
result in conflicts if the authors disagree what’s being said.
Review and Presentation
• Peers from authors field examine the work-Based on review
findings the author may need to revise his work
• The author present final version at conferences or other
events relavent to his field

33. Publication
• When monographs take the form of an essay –published in
an academic journal
• University/small presses may handle book versions but
rising cost of publication –impractical to publish books with
limited copies.
All books are monographs but Not all books are
monographs

34. Thesis
• Document describing project work carried out as a part of
fulfillment of academic requirements to get a degree
• Significance
– Gets an opportunity to work on technical problem and
bring out the solution by following scientific and technical
methods
– During this phase the delegates put all their learning and
apply the theoritical knowledge
– Invoves a systematic approach to document the
proceedings of the project and gives a training to relook at
the presentation skills.
•

35. Dissertation
• The dissertation is the final stage of the Masters degree and
provides you with the opportunity to show that you have
gained the necessary skills and knowledge in order to organize
and conduct a research project.
• A dissertation is a ‘formal’ document and there are ‘rules’ that
govern the way in which it is presented.
1. Title 2.Abstract
3. Acknowledgement 4.Content page
5.Introduction 6.literature review
7. research methodology 8. result and discussion
9.Summary and conclusion 10.Bibliography
11. Appendices

36. Aims of the Dissertation
• put into practice theories and concepts learned on
the programme;
• provide an opportunity to study a particular topic in
depth;
• show evidence of independent investigation;
• combine relevant theories and suggest alternatives;
• enable interaction with practitioners (where
appropriate to the chosen topic);
• show evidence of ability to plan and manage a
project within deadlines

37. • After completion of the dissertation students should
be able to:
• define, design and deliver an academically rigorous
piece of research;
• show evidence of a critical and holistic knowledge
and have a deeper understanding of their chosen
subject area;
• appreciate practical implications and constraints of
the specialist subject;
• Understand the process and decisions to be made in
managing a project within strict deadlines

38. Bibliography
•A bibliography is an orderly list of resources on a particular
subject
•A bibliography provides the full reference information for all
the sources which you may have consulted in preparing a
particular project
•The purpose of a bibliography is to allow the reader to trace
the sources used
•The author’s name is listed in reverse order-surname first-for
the purpose of alphabetizing.

39. • American Psychological Association (APA), Modern
Language Association of America (MLA) and Chicago
Manual of Style and Council of Biology Editors (CBE)
• The APA style of referencing -topics of social
sciences;
• MLA style -humanities; and
• CBE -natural sciences
Standard Citation Styles Used in a Bibliography

40. • Examples
MLA
For books
o Author. Title of book: Subtitle. City of Publication:
Publisher, Year.
Arnold, Francis. Greece. Texas: Steck-Vaughn, 1992.
APA
o Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book
title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing
company.
Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America.
Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

41. Making a Bibliography
•For an Encyclopedia
Encyclopedia Title, Edition Date. Volume Number, "Article
Title," page numbers
The Encyclopedia Britannica 1997, Volume 7, “Gorillas,” pp
51-55.
•For a magazine
Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of magazine.
Volume number, (Date): page numbers.
Jordan, Jennifer, “Filming on top of the world.” Museum of
Science Magazine. Volume 7 (winter 1998) pp-11

42. •For a Newspaper
Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of newspaper,
city, state of publication. (date): edition if available, section,
page number(s).
Powers, Ann, “New Trends” The New York Times ,New York,
NY(3/1/98), Atlantic Region, Section 2 , p-3.
•World Wide Web
URL (Uniform Resource Locator or WWW address). author (or
item's name, if mentioned), date.
http://www.TheHindu.com.Today’s news, August 1, 2012

43. •Government Publications
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation.
Healthy Buildings, Healthy People: A vision for the 21st Century.
October 2001.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/images/indoor_air_pollution.pdf.
•Miscellaneous
Central Intelligence Agency. Commonwealth Of Independent
States-Central European States. Washington DC : Central
Intelligence Agency, 2003. Map.

44. EDITIORIALS
An article that states a person’s or a newspaper’s opinion on a
particular issue.
Persuasive essay on a researchable topic that has more than
one view point
It allows to discuss opinion on an issue faced by a community
A journalistic essay which attempts to inform or explain ,
persuade or convince ,stimulate insights in an entertaining
or humorous manner(Iyorkyaa,1996)

45. In general, an editorial should be organized in 4 steps:
1. State the subject and your position on the subject
in the introduction.
2. Discuss opposing points of view.
3. Prove your position with supporting details.
4. Draw a conclusion.

46. 1. Explain or interpret: Editors often use these
editorials to explain the way the newspaper
covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School
newspapers may explain new school rules or a
particular student-body effort like a food drive.
2. Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize
actions, decisions or situations while providing
solutions to the problem identified. Immediate
purpose is to get readers to see the problem, not
the solution.
Types of editorials

47. 3. Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately
see the solution, not the problem. From the first
paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific,
positive action.
4. Praise: These editorials comment on people and
organizations for something done well. They are not as
common as the other three.

48. Book chapters and articles
Book chapters in an edited collection are places where there
is a bigger reflection on ideas than articles
Length
Finished manuscripts should be between 5,000 - 6,000 words,
excluding references-20 to 25 single-sided, double-spaced
manuscript pages.
Chapter Outline
•Introduction and chapter “map.” A brief overview of the
chapter, its theme, and purpose.
•Development of topic-mention primary/related issues,
significance of topic, include historical/ theoritical background
•Conclusions

49. Tables, Figures, Appendices
All tables, figures, and appendices should be appropriately
referenced in the text and submitted with the manuscript for
editorial review
Quotes and Extracts
All material taken from previously published sources—whether
quoted directly or paraphrased—should be cited in the text

50. Tips for Writing a Strong, Reader-Friendly Chapter
•Understand the Audience
•Chapters should offer a balance between theory and
•Reporting research findings-readers with enough information
to help them understand
•Identify the central themes in the responses describe those
themes
•Define important terms
•Use words like ‘obviously’, thus,therefore most/least
effective.. etc
•Use most current data-within 10years
•Have good conclusion that highlights all important points
•Include references

51. Writing for grant proposal
Grant writing refers to the practice of completing an
application process for funding provided by an institution
such as a government department, corporation, foundation
or a trust.
Writing for grant should
•follow application guidelines ,
•avoid jargons ,
• should spell out acronyms,
•ensure all citations are complete and
•be consistent with terms,references and forms of writing.