The development of critical thinking (CT) is a widely-assumed learning goal in undergraduate and graduate programs in psychology (Bensley, 1998; Halpern, 1998, 2003). Across a range of psychological disciplines, CT is typically approached from the perspective of analytic reasoning and the scientific method (Yanchar et al., 2008), with attention paid to the logical analysis of data, hypothesis support or refutation, and inference-making. Despite this emphasis on CT, there seems to be a gap between students’ descriptive understanding of research methodology (declarative knowledge) and their capacity to implement what they have learned in order to critically appraise a psychology literature (procedural knowledge). In this talk, the co-authors present a novel paper assignment formulated by the second author (J.T.) that is designed to support students’ ability to critically evaluate a research literature in psychology. This assignment serves as the final term-paper for a foundational course in the curriculum of a doctoral program (Psy.D.) in clinical psychology. Inspired by the “60 Minutes” television program, the paper asks students to (1) identify a consensus viewpoint or trend in the research literature relating to adult psychopathology, and (2) provide a cogent appraisal of available research evidence to ascertain if the consensus viewpoint is supported or refuted. The central component of the paper is the creation of 6 evaluative criteria with which studies are reviewed; these criteria are required to be descriptive (e.g., sample characteristics) and appraising (e.g., Is depression assessed both before and after treatment intervention?) in their orientation.

1. The Western Psychological Association Annual Convention
April 25, 2014
Teaching Critical Thinking Skills
to Graduate Students in Clinical Psychology:
A Novel Method and Case Example
James Tobin, Ph.D. and Anya Oleynik

2. Part I: Introduction
2

3. I. Introduction
• The development of critical thinking (CT) is a
ubiquitous learning goal in undergraduate and
graduate programs in psychology.
3

4. I. Introduction
4

5. I. Introduction
• There exists a gap between students’
understanding of research methodology and
their capacity to think critically across a wide
range of dimensions (e.g., appraising a
literature, evaluating theory, etc.).
5

6. I. Introduction
• If students are unable to think critically (and
not socialized to challenge preconceived
notions and consensus perspectives),
successive generations of psychologists may
be ill-equipped to contribute to the
development of new knowledge.
6

7. I. Introduction
• The development of CT skills is especially important in
graduate programs in clinical psychology.
• The research-practitioner pedagogical model
emphasizes the synthesis of research, theory and
clinical intervention; professional psychologists must
be “informed consumers” of the research literature.
7

8. I. Introduction
• Standard training in clinical psychology
emphasizes evidence-based practices, which
may lead to a regimented, one-size-fits-all
approach in clinical practice.
• An attitude of intellectual skepticism may not
be encouraged in this environment.
8

9. I. Introduction
• In this talk, we present a novel teaching
assignment formulated by the first author (J.T.)
designed to help students critically evaluate a
research literature in psychology and draw their
own conclusions.
• In response to the assignment, the paper written
by the second author (A.O.) is exemplary and
evidences sophisticated CT skills; this paper will
be distributed and discussed.
9

10. Part II: Summary of the Predominant Views
of Critical Thinking
10

11. Predominant Views of CT
• Definitions of CT tend to be abstract and wide-
ranging, rather than definitive and specific.
11

12. II. Predominant Views of CT
• According to Halpern (1999), “critical thinking
can be taught as argument analysis (see, for
example, Kahane, 1997), problem solving
(Mayer, 1992), decision making (Dawes, 1988),
or cognitive process (Rabinowitz, 1993)” (p.
70).
12

13. II. Predominant Views of CT
• Niu et al. (2013) suggest that “critical thinking
has been described as an attitude, a logical
process, purposeful reflection and a
developmental process” (p. 115).
• Although many people equate CT ability with
high intelligence, evidence suggests that,
although often correlated, the two are not
synonymous (Niu et al., 2013).
13

14. II. Predominant Views of CT
• CT “requires the application
of assumptions, knowledge,
competence, and the ability
to challenge one’s own
thinking. Critical thinking skills require self-
correction, monitoring the reasonableness of
thinking, and reflexivity” (Niu et al., 2013, p.
115).
14

15. II. Predominant Views of CT
• Kirschner (2011) states that each type of CT
“evinces a tacit expectation that there might
be a gap between the way something is… and
the way it should be” (p. 174), and the use of
a critical thinker’s insights may diminish this
gap.
15

16. II. Predominant Views of CT
• Price (2004) defines CT as “the process by
which subjects become more aware of their
own positions, others’ positions, and the ways
those positions are shaped by discourses” (p.
vi).
16

17. II. Predominant Views of CT
• Wade and Tavris (1987) define CT as “the
ability and willingness to assess claims and
make objective judgments on the basis of
well-supported reasons" (p. 308-309).
17

18. Part III: The Teaching of CT
18

19. III. The Teaching of CT
• According to Kirschner (2011), the topic of critical
thinking “is a perennial focus of the APA’s Board
of Educational Affairs” (p. 174).
• The APA’s guidelines on CT
suggest that psychology
instructors train students to use
the scientific approach whenever possible to
find answers to questions, as well as encourage
creativity and skeptical inquiry (Kirschner, 2011).
19

20. III. The Teaching of CT
• Jakoubek (1995) states that, in order for
students to become critical thinkers, “they
must learn to distinguish between assertions,
evidence, and theoretical explanations” (p.
57).
20

21. III. The Teaching of CT
• Kirschner (2011) describes the teaching of CT
as helping students discern what is wrong,
incomplete, limited, distorted, etc. from “what
is correct, excellent, or pleasing, along with
fostering of the capacity to pinpoint and
explain what makes it so” (p. 174).
21

22. III. The Teaching of CT
• Similarly, Halpern (2001) emphasizes the need
to help students learn how to evaluate the
quality of information and analyze arguments
for the soundness of conclusions.
22

23. Part IV: Barriers to Promoting CT
23

24. IV. Barriers to Promoting CT
• Douglas (2000) defines CT as reflective
thinking in “deciding what to believe and do”
(p. 130), and views people’s stubbornness
toward accepting new information as barriers
to CT.
• According to Douglas (2000), people “have
difficulty not believing something unless they
are given something else to believe” (p. 140).
24

25. IV. Barriers to Promoting CT
• Douglas (2000) asserts, “the tendency to
believe everything comprehended makes it
important to teach students to expend the
effort to reject propositions until ample
evidence is gathered” (p. 140).
25

26. IV. Barriers to Promoting CT
• According to Douglas (2000), unless educators
take belief perseverance into consideration
and students are willing to challenge their
existing beliefs, it may be impossible for
educators to teach students to think critically.
26

27. IV. Barriers to Promoting CT
• McKee (2006) explains that it is difficult for
instructors to teach CT when they have not
had instruction in CT in their own education
and when textbooks are organized in such a
way to provide factual content rather than
stimulate CT.
27

28. Part V: Sample Teaching Methods
28

29. V. Sample Teaching Methods
• McKee (2006) describes several critical
thinking exercises, including:
–Metacognition (i.e., thinking about thinking)
–Media projects (i.e., applying/relating
knowledge to current events)
–Group discussions and individual problem-
solving
29

30. V. Sample Teaching Methods
• Wade (1995) describes the following eight
activities that students must do to become
critical thinkers: “(a) ask questions and be
willing to wonder, (b) define problems clearly,
(c) examine evidence, (d) analyze assumptions
and biases, (e) avoid emotional reasoning, (f)
avoid oversimplification, (g) consider
alternative interpretations, and (h) tolerate
uncertainty” (p. 25).
30

31. V. Sample Teaching Methods
• Galotti (1995) describes an exercise in which
students observe/describe the reasoning
style of another classmate on four tasks and
determine the number of distinct types of
reasoning they have observed, with the goal
“to elicit from students a degree of critical
thinking and creativity as they develop their
own models and conclusions” (p. 66).
31

32. Part VI: Term Paper Assignment
and Student Exemplar
32

33. VI. Term Paper Assignment and
Student Exemplar
• A term paper assignment was developed for a
first-year foundational course in the
curriculum of a Psy.D. Program in Clinical
Psychology.
33

34. VI. Term Paper Assignment and
Student Exemplar
• Your task is to write a 10-page, typed,
double-spaced paper that:
(1) identifies a consensus viewpoint or trend
in the research literature (on any topic
relevant in adult psychopathology); and
(2) offers a cogent commentary on, and
appraisal of, the consensus viewpoint or
trend.
34

35. VI. Term Paper Assignment and
Student Exemplar
• One way to think about this paper is to
imagine that you are a writer for the “60
Minutes” TV show pitching new story ideas to
your producer.
35

36. VI. Term Paper Assignment and
Student Exemplar
• Your job is to pitch an idea that is interesting,
provocative and attention-catching.
• The pitch must contain a common
belief/assumption/consensus view that you
then suggest will be evaluated scientifically
.... with the conclusions being quite surprising
(i.e., the belief will be refuted, qualified, or
proven to be more true than was previously
assumed).
36

37. VI. Term Paper Assignment and
Student Exemplar
• For example, online dating is very popular
and the most successful way new
relationships begin – relying on compatibility
as the basis for good relationships. However,
a closer scientific look at the nature of online
dating, the relationships evolving from
meeting online, how long these relationships
are maintained, etc. etc. may surprise you .....
37

38. VI. Term Paper Assignment and
Student Exemplar
• The central component of this exercise is the
creation of 6 evaluative criteria with which
you will review studies you have selected.
• Three criteria must be descriptive (e.g.,
sample characteristics) and three must be
appraising (e.g., Is depression assessed both
before and after treatment intervention?) in
their orientation.
38

39. VI. Term Paper Assignment and
Student Exemplar
Anya’s Paper
39

40. Part VII: Conclusion
40

41. VII. Conclusion
• McKee (2006, p. 27) observes that “little
evidence exists to indicate that students
leave undergraduate-level psychology
courses with scientific reasoning skills ...
(Best, 1982; Greenhoot et al., 2004; Lillienfeld,
2005; McCutcheon, Furnham, & Davis, 1993;
Shermer, 2002).”
41

42. VII. Conclusion
• It is our hope that the paper assignment we
showcased provides a
useful structured exercise to
support the development of CT
skills among students.
• Applicable for educators across a range of
disciplines in psychology who consistently
struggle with the challenge of enhancing
students’ CT and writing skills.
42

43. References
Douglas, N. L. (2000). Enemies of critical thinking: Lessons from
social psychology research. Reading Psychology, 21, 129-144.
Galotti, K. M. (1995). Reasoning about reasoning: a course
project. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 66-68.
Halpern, D. F. (1999). Teaching for critical thinking: Helping
college students develop the skills and dispositions of a
critical thinker. New directions for teaching and learning,
1999, 69-74.
Halpern, D. F. (2001). Critical thinking, the cognitive psychology
of. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International
encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences.
Amsterdam: Pergamon.
43

44. References
Jakoubek, J. (1995). Developing Critical-Thinking Skills in
Psychology Content Courses. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 57-
59.
Kirschner, S. R. (2011). Critical thinking and the end(s) of
psychology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical
Psychology, 31, 173-183.
McKee, M. L. (2006). Overcoming obstacles in teaching college
students how to think critically: The effects of an instructional
intervention. (Order No. 3222188, The University of Kansas).
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 1-136.
Niu, L., Behar-Horenstein, L. S., & Garvan, C. W. (2013). Do
instructional interventions influence college students’ critical
thinking skills? A meta-analysis. Educational Research
Review, 9, 114-128.
44

45. References
Price, M. (2004). Writing from normal: Critical thinking and
disability in the classroom. ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses, 0-203.
Wade, C. (1995). Using Writing to Develop and Assess Critical
Thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 24-28.
Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (1987). Psychology (1st ed.). New York:
Harper & Row.
Yanchar, S. C., & Slife, B. D. (2004). Teaching critical thinking by
examining assumptions. Teaching of Psychology, 31, 85-90.
45

46. James Tobin, Ph.D.
Licensed Psychologist PSY 22074
220 Newport Center Drive, Suite 1
Newport Beach, CA 92660
Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychology
The American School of Professional Psychology
at Argosy University | Southern California
Orange, CA 92868
Email: jt@jamestobinphd.com
Website: www.jamestobinphd.com
Phone: 949-338-4388

47. Anya Oleynik
Clinical Psychology Psy.D. Student
The American School of Professional Psychology
at Argosy University | Southern California
Orange, CA 92868
Email: anyaoleynik@stu.argosy.edu