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Friction in Orthodontics

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INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY
Leader in continuing dental education
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Contents
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•
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Introduction
Laws of friction
Static & dynamic friction
Sliding mechanics
effect of bracket.
archwire.
ligation.
biological factors.
• Conclusions.
• References.
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Introduction
• Definition - Two materials touching one another
share a contact area. The resistance to movement
tangent to this area, of one material relative to
the other, is known as friction.

• The frictional force is proportional to the force
with which the contacting surfaces are pressed
together and is affected by the nature of the
surface at the interface (rough or
smooth, chemically reactive or passive, modified
by lubricants, etc.)
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• Orthodontic space closure is achieved through 2 types of
mechanics.
1. Segmental or sectional mechanics - is made of closing
loops fabricated in either a full or sectional archwire.

Advantage - lack of frictional forces between the bracket
and archwire during space closure.
Disadvantages - time consumed in fabricating loops, as
well as undesired tooth rotations in the sagittal &
transverse planes, resulting in increased leveling
requirements.
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2. Sliding mechanics - involves either moving
brackets along an archwire or sliding the archwire
through brackets & tubes.
This results in decreased adverse rotational
movements but leads to friction, which results in
delay in tooth movement, increase in anchorage
requirements, or both.

Therefore the name friction mechanics is often
associated with it.
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• The portion of applied force lost due to resistance
to sliding can range from 12- 60%. (Kusy et al Sem
Orthod 1997)

• High frictional forces affect the efficiency of
treatment, result in increased treatment time, &
compromise results because of loss of anchorage.
It will also impact on the M/F ratios of teeth and
consequently their centers of rotation.
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• Friction may exist between two solid surfaces, at a solidfluid interface, or between fluid layers.
• Friction between solids is termed rolling or sliding,
depending upon the form of relative movement attempted;
rolling resistance is highly dependent on the amount of
localized deformation where contact occurs.
• The resistance that precludes actual motion is termed static
friction;
• that which exists during motion is called dynamic friction.
• Both the static and dynam-ics forms of sliding friction are of
orthodontic interest.
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• Sliding friction is generated between arch wire
and bracket when the wire "guides" the
bracket during mesiodistal movement of an
individual tooth or when the arch wire is
slipped through posterior crown attachments
in, for example, the retraction of an anterior
dental segment.

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• In the late 15th century, Leonardo Da Vinci
proposed the two basic laws of sliding friction.
• Frictional resistance to sliding
is, firstly, proportional to the load
and, secondly, independent of the apparent
area of the sliding interfaces.

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The Laws of Friction
First law
• States that the frictional
force is proportional to the
applied load (that is, the
normal force, N) by a
constant, the coefficient of
friction (u).
• In orthodontics, all couples
follow this first law without
exception.
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Second law
• States that the coefficient of
friction is independent of
apparent contact area.
• This statement will be true
if the contacting surfaces
can plastically deform (that
is, "yield") until the
appropriate actual contact
area is attained.
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• As stated, this law is usually obeyed both in
materials science in general and in
orthodontics in particular

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The third law/Coulomb's Law
• The coefficient of friction of
a couple is independent of
the sliding velocity.
• This third law, is usually not
obeyed in materials science
or in orthodontics.

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• Friction is independent of
the apparent area of
contact. This is because all
surfaces, no matter how
smooth, have irregularities
that are large on a
molecular scale, and real
contact occurs only at a
limited number of small
spots at the peaks of the
surface irregularities.
• These spots, called
asperities.
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• Asperities carry all the load between the two
surfaces; Even under light loads, local pressure
at the asperities may cause appreciable plastic
deformation of those small areas.
• Because of this, the true contact area is to a
considerable extent determined by the
applied load and is directly proportional to it.
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• When a tangential force is applied to cause one material to
slide past the other, the junctions begin to shear.
• The coefficient of friction then is proportional to the shear
strength of the junctions and is inversely proportional to
the yield strength of the materials (because this determines
the extent of plastic deformation at the asperities.)
• At low sliding speeds, a "stick-slip" phenomenon may occur
as enough force builds up to shear the junctions and a jump
occurs, then the surfaces stick again until enough force
again builds to break them.

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• Two other factors can affect the resistance to sliding:
• The interlocking of surface irregularities, (when the
asperities are large or pointed);
• The extent to which asperities on a harder material plow
into the surface of a softer one.

• Thus the total frictional resistance will be the sum of three
components:
1. The force necessary to shear all junctions,
2. The resistance caused by the interlocking of
roughness, and
3. The plowing component of the total friction force.
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• In practice, if the two materials are relatively smooth
and not greatly dissimilar in hardness, friction is largely
determined by the shearing component.
• Friction is a factor in orthodontic anchorage
control, particularly for space closure with fixed
appliances.
• Frictional resistance to sliding arch wires against
brackets can be reduced by modifying any or all of the
major factors discussed above, but it cannot be totally
eliminated.
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VARIABLES AFFECTING FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE DURING TOOTH
MOVEMENT

A.

PHYSICAL VARIABLES:

1. Archwire:
a) Material
b) Cross sectional shape/ size.
c) Surface texture.
d) Stiffness.
2. Ligation of archwire to bracket:
a) Ligature wires.
b) Elastomerics
c) Method of ligation/Self ligating brackets

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3. Bracket:
a) Material
b) Manufacturing process.
c) Slot width and depth.
d) Design of bracket: single/twin.
e) First order bend (in-out)
f) Second order bend (angulation).
g) Third order bend (torque).
4. Orthodontic appliance:
a) Inter bracket distance.
b) Level of bracket slots between adjacent teeth.
c) Forces applied for retraction.
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B. BIOLOGICAL VARIABLES:
a) Saliva
b) Plaque
c) Acquired pellicle.
d) Corrosion.

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Effect of archwire on kinetic friction:
• Wire material:
• Most studies have found stainless steel wires to be associated with
the least amount of friction. This is further backed up by specular
reflectance studies which show that stainless steel wires have the
smoothest surface, followed by Co-Cr, -Ti, and NiTi in order of
increasing surface roughness.

• Kusy & Whitney (1990) investigated the correlation between
surface roughness & frictional characteristics. They found Stainless
steel to have least coefficient of friction & the smoothest surface.
However - titanium showed greater friction compared to Ni Ti
, though the latter was rougher.
• Hence they concluded that surface roughness cannot be used as an
indicator of frictional characteristics in sliding mechanics.
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• The reason whey titanium has a higher coefficient of friction than
Ni-Ti is because of its higher titanium content (79W/W%), which
results in increased adherence or cold welding of wire to bracket
slot (slip-stick effect).
• Frank & Nikolai (1980) found that Stainless Steel had less friction
than NiTi at nonbinding angulations but as angulation increased &
binding was present, SS showed more friction.
• According to Thorstenson & Kusy (AJO –DO 2002), the binding
component appears to be influenced by the product E x I of the
archwires ( E= modules or elasticity & I = moment of inertia).
Smaller, more flexible archwires such as 14 mil NiTi exhibit less
binding (BI) than larger, less flexible archwires such as 19 x 25 mil SS
wires.
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Clinical consideration:
• Larger, stiffer archwires are generally used during final
stages of treatment when retaining the tooth position is the
objective. The additional resistance to sliding (RS) between
the bracket & archwire might further prevent movement of
teeth.

• Loftus et al (AJO 1999) evaluated friction during sliding
movement in various bracket-arch wire combinations. They
reported that NiTi produced the least amount of frictions
followed by SS & -Ti in increasing order. As the angulation
(& hence binding) of the wire was increased, there was
greater increase in frictional forces with SS than with NiTi.
They suggested that the flexibility of NiTi may contribute to
a decrease in the normal force at the points or contact
between bracket & archwire.
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• Nishio et al (AJO-DO Jan 2004) performed an in vitro study
to evaluate frictional forces between various archwires &
ceramic brackets. They found that titanium showed the
highest frictional force, followed by NiTi & SS wires. They
suggest that elastic properties of the wire are secondary &
surface texture has more influence on frictional force.
• Zufall & Kusy (Angle Orthod. 2000): Studied the sliding
mechanics of composite orthodontic archwires with a
coating of polychloro-p-xylene. The coating eliminated the
risk of glass release from the wire. Also frictional & binding
coefficients were within the limits outlined by the
conventional orthodontic wire-bracket couples.
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• Wire Size: • Several studies have found an increase in wire size to be
associated with increased bracket-wire friction. In general,
at non-binding angulations, rectangular wires produce
more friction than round wires. However, at binding
angulations, the bracket slot can bite into the wire at one
point, causing an indentation in the wire.
• However, with a rectangular wire, the force is distributed
over a larger area ie. the facio-lingual dimension, resulting
in less pressure & less resistance to movement. This may
account for the finding of Frank & Nikolai that an 020” wire
was associated with more friction than the 017 x 025” wire.
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• Wire stiffness & clearance:
• Mechanically speaking, orthodontic wires are elastic
beams, supported at one or both ends. Force applied
on such an elastic beam causes a deflection, which is
reversible within elastic limit of the material. Stiffer
wires are less springy & deflect less for a given force.
• Doubling the diameter of a wire increases the stiffness
by a factor of 16, when supported at one end, & by a
factor of 4, when supported between two brackets.
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• Doubling the length of a cantilever beam decreases
stiffness by a factor of 8.
• During canine retraction in a premolar extraction case the
increased inter bracket span of unsupported wire over the
extraction site decreases the stiffness of wire. Retraction
force, therefore has a greater chance of deflecting the
wire, resulting in buckling. To prevent such
deflections, which may increase friction & chances of
bracket binding, the diameter of wire should be increased
to compensate for decrease in stiffness when interbracket
span is greater than normal.

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• For rectangular wires, stiffness is also dependent on cross
sectional dimension in the direction of bending. In other
words an 017 x 022” wire is more springy in the vertical
direction when it is placed edgewise rather than flatwise.
• Drescher et al (AJO-DO 1989) stated that friction depends
primarily on the vertical dimension of the wire. An 016”
stainless steel round wire and an 016 x 022” stainless steel
rectangular wire showed virtually the same amount of
friction. This was however lower than that for 018X025”
wires. The authors state that for mesiodistal tooth
movement, rectangular wire is preferred because of its
additional feature of buccolingual root control.
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• As the stiffness of a beam is dependent on the
support at both ends of the beam, during
canine retraction, the premolar and lateral
incisor brackets should be tied tightly to
archwire. This will increase the stiffness of the
wire as well as increase friction in the
premolar bracket, thus minimizing anchorage
loss.
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Effect of Ligation Technique on
Friction :
• The normal force exerted by the ligature has a significant
influence in determining the frictional resistance developed
within an orthodontic system. This force has been
estimated to be between 50-300g, and upto 375g in one
study.

• Various methods of ligation are available: - stainless steel
ligatures, elastomeric modules, polymeric coated modules
and finally the self ligating brackets, which may be having a
spring clip (Hanson SPEED and Adenta Time) which pushes
the wire into place, or it may have a passive clip which does
not press on the wire (Activa and Damon II brackets.)

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• Elastomeric ligatures are adversely affected by
the oral environment, and demonstrate stress
relaxation with time and great individual
variation in properties.
• Stainless steel ligatures can be tied too tight or
too loose depending on the clinicians
technique.
• Self ligating brackets with a passive clip have
been shown to generate negligible friction.
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• Edwards et al (BJO 1995) compared the frictional forces
produced when elastomeric modules were applied
conventionally or in a “figure of –8” configuration, stainless
steel ties or Teflon coated ligatures were used for archwire
ligation. The “figure of 8” modules appeared to create the
highest friction. There was no significant difference in mean
frictional force between the conventional module and the
SS ligature, but the Teflon coated ligature had the lowest
mean frictional force.
• Dowling et al (BJO 1998) investigated the frictional forces of
differently colored modules & found the clear modules to
exhibit significantly lower friction than other modules. This
study however was carried out in absence of saliva.
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• Khambay et al (EJO 2004) compared the effect of
elastomeric type and stainless steel ligation on frictional
resistance and these were further compared with selfligating Damon II brackets. There was no consistent pattern
in the mean frictional forces across the various
combinations of wire size, type, and ligation method. The
polymeric coated module did not produce the lowest mean
frictional force. The introduction of a 45 bend into the
module (Alastik Easy-to-use) reduced mean frictional force
to that of a SS ligature when using 19 x 25” SS wire. The
use of metal ligatures with 7 turns produced the lowest
friction confirming the findings of Bazakidon et al (AJO-DO
97). They concluded that the use of passive self ligating
brackets is the only may of almost eliminating friction.
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• Thorstenson & Kusy (AJO 2002): investigated the RS for 3 self
ligating brackets with passive slides (Activa, Damon & Twinlock) and
3 self ligating brackets with active clips (In-ovation, SPEED, Time),
with second order angulation, in dry and saliva states. They
reported that for second order angulations
c, the RS of selfligating brackets is small to non-existent regardless of saliva state,
thus facilitating siding mechanics, but compromising root position.
The RS of brackets with active clips was higher being in range of 1247CN (dry state) and (22-54CN) wet State, respectively.
• They reported that in the active state ( > c), the rate of binding is
similar, regardless of presence of passive slide or active clip.

• According to them “The desire to minimize the RS should be
moderated by the necessity to control tooth movement”.
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• Henao & Kusy (Angle orthod. 2004) compared the frictional
resistance of conventional & self ligating brackets using various
archwire sized. They reported that self ligating brackets exhibited
superior performance when coupled with smaller wires used in
early stages of orthodontic treatment. However when larger 016 x
022” and 019 x 025” AW were tested, the differences between selfligating & conventional brackets were not so evident. This shows
that self ligating brackets have the ability to maintain low frictional
resistance only upto a certain size of archwire. It also emphasizes
the importance of leveling and alignment before using larger wires
& sliding mechanics.
•

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Effect of Bracket on Friction :
• a. Bracket material :
• Angle used a gold prototype of edgewise brackets over
75 years ago. In 1933, Dr. Archie Brusse presented a
table clinic on the first stainless steel appliance system.
Since then SS brackets have displaced gold. Because
they were stiffer & stronger, SS brackets could be made
smaller, in effect increasing their esthetics via their
reduced dimension. Their frictional characteristics
were so satisfactory that they are today’s standard of
the profession. However, conventional cast stainless
steel has met its competitor in the sintered variety.
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• The technology of sintering, the process of fusing individual
particles together after compacting them under heat &
pressure allows each bracket to be premolded in a smooth
streamlined manner. The SS particles are compressed in a
contoured, smooth, rounded shape as opposed to the older
casting procedure in which the milling or cutting process
left sharp, angular brackets, which were bulky and rough.
Investigations comparing these two varieties with various
archwire sizes at the Univ. of Oklahoma revealed that for
most wire sizes, sintered stainless steel brackets produced
significantly lower friction than cast SS brackets. (upto 3844% less friction.) This difference in frictional forces could
be attributed to smoother surface texture of sintered SS
material.
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• Plastic brackets first appeared in around 1970,
and these were injection molded from an
aromatic polymer called polycarbonate. These
were meant to be esthetic but were subject to
stains & odors. Moreover these plastic
brackets deformed plastically under load &
showed creep with time.

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• About 10 years passed before the first ceramic brackets
were developed. In spite of their superior esthetics, their
frictional properties are far inferior to stainless steel. Highly
magnified views have revealed numerous generalized small
indentations in the ceramic bracket slot, while SS brackets
appear relatively smooth. Single crystal ceramic brackets
are derived by milling large single alumina crystals into the
derived shape & size via ultrasonic or diamond cutting or a
combination of these two processes. Polycrystalline
ceramic brackets are sintered together using special
binders to fuse the particles together. Laser speculance &
SEM have shown monocrystalline brackets to be smoother
than polycrystalline ones, but their frictional characteristics
were comparable.
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• Clinical significance:
• Since ceramic brackets on anterior teeth are
often used in combination with stainless steel
brackets and tubes on premolar and molar teeth,
retracting canines along an archwire may result in
greater loss of anchorage because of higher
frictional force associated with ceramic than steel
brackets. Greater caution in preserving anchorage
must be exerted in such situation.
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• Zirconia brackets:
• In order to overcome the problem of brittleness
& low fracture resistance associated with ceramic
brackets, Zirconia brackets were offered as an
alternative. But these were found to have friction
coefficients equal to or greater than ceramic
brackets. They also showed surface changes
consisting of wire debris and surface damage to
brackets after sliding of arch wires.
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• Metal lined ceramic Brackets:
• In the last few years, it has been recognized that
ceramics have desirable esthetics but other materials
have superior frictional characteristics.
Consequently, as stainless steel and a gold liner have
now been placed in a polycrystalline Alumina bracket.
• These metal inserted products capitalize on the best of
both worlds, namely, pleasing esthetics and
competitive frictional characteristics, both in the
presence & absence of saliva.
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• Kusy & Whitley (Angle Orthod. 2001) evaluated a
stainless steel lined polycrystalline alumina
bracket (Clarity, 3M*/Unitek) and an 18kt gold
lined polycrystalline allumina bracket (Luxi, RMO
Corp), and compared these with SS brackets as
controls. They found that in the dry state, Luxi
has the lowest resistance to sliding compared to
Clarity and the SS brackets. This can be attributed
to the presence of a non-oxidizing surface of 18kt
gold. In the wet state, Luxi performs similarly to
SS brackets, Clarity, shows higher resistance to
sliding in the wet state.
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• Cacciafesta, et al (AJO-DO Oct 2003) reported
that when tested with SS, NiTi, and TMA
wires, metal-insert ceramic brackets (clarity)
generated significantly lower frictional forces
than conventional ceramic brackets, but
higher values than stainless steel brackets, in
agreement with findings of previous report.

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• Thorstenson & Kusy (Angle Ortho 2003) studied the
influence of Stainless Steel inserts on RS of esthetic
brackets with 2nd order angulation in dry & wet states.
According to them, at angles when clearance no longer
existed, the resistance to sliding for esthetic brackets
with & without inserts generally increased with
angulation at a rate equal or greater than SS bracketsexcept for polycarbonate brackets which underwent
elastic deformation and then had lower RS. They
concluded that the addition of SS inserts did not
considerably improve RS over esthetic brackets without
inserts.

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Titanium brackets
• These were introduced to the profession in response to reports
about corrosion of stainless steel brackets & sensitivity to nickel
present in the alloy.
• Kapur, Sinha & Nanda (AJO-DO 1999) compared the levels of
frictional resistance generated between titanium & SS brackets,
using a universal Instron machine. The results of the study showed
that SS brackets had higher static & kinetic frictional force values as
the wire size increased. (Rectangular SS wire). For the titanium
brackets however, friction decreased as wire size increased. They
stated that the desirable qualities of Ti such as low rigidity,
superelasticity & shape memory allow early engagement of full size
wire during treatment, allow the bracket to elastically deform, and
create a reactive working environment for 3-D control of
orthodontic tooth movement with rectangular wires.
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• Kusy & Q’Grady (AJO-DO 2000) compared the
resistance to sliding of Stainless Steel &
titanium brackets using SS & -Ti wires. They
reported that although RS increased with
angulation & normal force, the passive layer in
both types did not break down. Titanium
brackets remained comparable to SS brackets
in the active configuration & are a suitable
substitute for SS in sliding mechanics.
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• 3 b. Bracket slot width:
• Bracket slot width refers to the bracket dimension in
the mesial distal direction. The effect of bracket width
on friction has been controversial. Some studies have
found bracket width to have no effect on friction.
While others have found frictional resistance to
increased with bracket width. Yet others have reported
a decrease in friction with an increase in bracket width.
• Frank & Nikolai (AJO 1980) related greater friction with
a wider bracket to the fact that binding occurs
frequently at smaller degrees of angulation with wider
brackets than with narrow brackets.
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• Kapila et al (AJO-DO 1990) reported that 018” slot sized
medium twin brackets were associated with 1.5 times
more friction than narrow single brackets, while wide
twin brackets produced twice as much friction.
Medium twin & wide twin 022” brackets also produced
more friction than narrow single 022” brackets.
• They suggested that with a wider bracket the
elastomeric ligature was stretched more than with a
narrow bracket, producing almost twice as much
friction, due to greater normal force exerted on the
wire.
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• Drescher et al (AJO-DO 1989), Beduar et al (AJO-DO 91)
& Omana et al (JCO 1992) suggested that with a
narrow bracket, the tooth could tip considerably before
binding occurred & once binding occurred it was of a
severe nature, which resisted further sliding of the
archwire. Bracket width is closely related to
interbracket distance. The narrower the bracket, the
greater the interbracket wire, and the greater the
flexibility of the wire. This may result in greater chance
of binding with the more flexible wire. Also, narrow
brackets have the disadvantage of less rotational &
tipping control due to smaller section of archwire
engaged within the slot.
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• 3(c) Second order bend (angulation): • Resistance to sliding occurs when closing or
regaining space with sliding mechanics. In the
passive condition, ie. when the archwire and
bracket have clearance, classical friction (FR) is
the only existing component of RS. In this
condition, the angulation ( ) between the
archwire & the bracket is less than the critical
angle ( c) where the wire contacts both ends of
the bracket slot.
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• When clearance disappears and an interference
fit occurs, ( = c) binding arises as a second
component of RS.
• Frictional forces are determined in vitro by
keeping a fixed second order bracket- wire
deflection system are not likely to be
representative of the in vivo condition. In the
clinical situation, second order deflections of wire
between brackets held in series can have
significant effects on bracket wire friction.
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• Frank & Nikolai (1980) found that frictional resistance
increased in a NON LINEAR manner with increased bracket
angulation.
• Ogata et al (AJO DO 1994) also noted that as second order
deflection increased, frictional resistance was found to
increase for every bracket-wire combination evaluated by
them. The friction increased appeared in 2 phases:
• With lower deflections: - A smooth sliding phase appeared
in which friction increased in an approximately linear
manner.
• As deflection increased further: A binding phase occurred
in which friction increased at a higher, non-linear rate.

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• Clinical Significance:
• For patients requiring maximum anchorage
protection, complete leveling of the arch prior
to using sliding mechanics is imperative. This
will reduce the force required for retraction of
the teeth because the frictional resistance will
be decreased.

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• Articolo & Kusy (AJO-DO 1999) studied the resistance
to sliding as a function of five angulations
(0 , 3 , 7 , 11 , 13 ) using a different combinations, of
SS, monocrystalline, or polycrystalline ceramic brackets
against SS, NiTi or -Ti archwires. When the couples
were in the passive configuration at low angulation, all
stainless steel wire bracket couples had the least
resistance to sliding. When angulation was >3 , active
configuration emerged and binding quickly
dominated, with RS increasing over 100 fold.
• Under these conditions, couples of SS had the highest
RS. While couples of the more compliant alloys such as
NiTi had the least.
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• 3 d) The role of third order torque:
• When torque is applied to the wire, its projected size is larger than
the actual size of the wire. This further decreases the clearance
between the archwire & the bracket and contributes to frictional
resistance to sliding.
• Kusy (AJO-DO 2004) evaluated the onset of binding for 3 scenarios
• Second order angulation alone.
• Third order torque only.
• Combination of second order angulation & third order torque.
• He found that each wire-slot combination has a common maximum
torque angle, independent of bracket width. He suggests that the
use of a metric 0.5mm slot might have some advantages with
regard to torquing. Wires can be used that apply lighter forces while
maintaining angulation and torque capabilities, which were once
possible only with larger wires.
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• BIOLOGIC VARIABLES :
• Saliva:
• It is suggested that saliva or a saliva substitute serves as an excellent
lubricant in the sliding of the bracket along the wire.
• Baker et al (AJO-DO 1987) using an artificial saliva substitute found a 15%
to 19% reduction in friction.
• Kusy et al (Angle Orthod 1991): found that saliva could have lubricous as
well as adhesive behavior depending on which archwire-bracket
combination was under consideration. Stainless steel wires showed an
adhesive behavior with saliva & a resultant increase in the coefficient of
friction in the wet state. The kinetic coefficients of friction of the -Ti
archwire in the wet state were 50% of the values of the dry state. This
probably occurred because saliva prevented the solid to solid contact
between the -Ti archwires and SS brackets, & thus prevented the slipstick phenomenon from occurring. (The slip-stick phenomenon occurs
when -Ti wire slides through SS brackets & the TiO2 layer breaks down,
adheres & breaks away).
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• Therefore, especially in adult patients, a
history of xerostomia or reduced salivary
flow, oral radiation therapy, or anticholinergic
medication should be noted as possible
factors in varying the force levels necessary to
more teeth.

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REDUCING FRICTION & IMPROVING ARCH MECHANICS
THROUGH SURFACE CHEMISTY

• Two principal approaches are available for improving arch
mechanics:
• Coating onto the surface:
 This includes metal plating, chemical vapor deposition
solvated polymers, plasma deposition (PD), and diamond
like coatings (DLC)
• Implanting into the substrate:
 This includes carburizing, nitriding, ion implantation
(II), and a hybrid process of ion implantation called ion
beam assisted deposition (IBAD)
www.indiandentalacademy.com
• Ion Implantation:
• A ballistic process in which any element can be embedded
into the surface of substrate. The principal advantage of the
process is that surface properties can be tailored while bulk
properties & tolerances remain uncharged. Today Ion
implantation (II) is used commercially to reduce static &
kinetic coefficients of friction of -Titanium wires. The
implantation of ions causes amorphisation of the surface by
forming a coherent, metastable case protecting the bulk
material. This reduces the slip-stick phenomenon. The
implantation of stainless steel brackets with N+/C+ resulted
in a systematic reduction in friction, when tested against
archwires made from titanium alloys. (Kusy, Andrews 1990)
www.indiandentalacademy.com
• Plasma Enhanced parylene: • In the plasma process, materials are energized
until they are ionized. If diparaxylylene is
vaporised, pyrolised into paraxylene and
injected into a vacuum chamber containing
the orthodontic appliance it can polymerise
onto these surfaces as a pinhole
free, clear, chemically inert polymer in a
coating as thin as 2.5 m.
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• To date, PEP coatings have shown outstanding
potential when apply to PCA and tested
against SS wires. Also, when -Ti archwires
were tested against, PEP coating, the values
were half that of control couples. So far, PEP
coating remains the only viable candidate as a
biocompatible, biostable coating for
orthodontic applications.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
• Diamond like carbon (DLC):
• The use of “diamond like carbon” is an attempt to
combine the best properties of diamond (i.e
hardness) with the best properties of graphite
(low frictional coefficient). However, the major
disadvantage associated with it is poor esthetics.
Also, the results achieved with DLC coated
couples have proved to be disappointing.
•
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Conclusions

Based on information gathered from studies of friction several
points of clinical significance can be identified.
• An appreciation of magnitude of friction is crucial for the
orthodontist who employs sliding mechanics during treatment
- With best of wire bracket combinations atleast 40g of
friction must be included in force applied to initiate tooth
movement.

www.indiandentalacademy.com
•

New bracket designs and manufacturing techniques have
been introduced to decreased the amount of friction
generated between wire and bracket slot.
- Sintered SS brackets.
- Bracket designs limiting force of ligation
(Self ligating
brackets)
•

Clinicians using esthetic tooth colored brackets - important
to know the level of friction generated by these brackets
before initiating tooth movement

www.indiandentalacademy.com
•

Selection of wire shapes and sizes:
e.g.: 0.018 inch SS steel best choice for canine retraction in
0.022 slot.
- If overall torque control is required:
0.016x 0.022 inch - 0.018 slot.
0.019x0.025 inch - 0.022 slot.
Archwire can also be thinned down in region distal to canine so
as to further facilitate movement. Care must be taken not to
over reduce the wire dimensions which could decreased
strength of wire

www.indiandentalacademy.com
•

Complete leveling of arch - important factor in reducing
friction during tooth movement.
e.g.: Space closure using 0.019 x 0.025 wire in 0.022 slot.

Before starting space closure rectangular wires need to be place
for atleast 1 month.
To ensure proper leveling and freedom from posterior
torque pressure.
Sliding mechanics can proceed smoothly

www.indiandentalacademy.com
To optimize use of sliding mechanic sufficient time must be
allowed for distal root movement to occur.
A common mistake is to change the E-chain too often thus
maintaining high force levels and a M/F ratio that produces
distal tipping only.

www.indiandentalacademy.com
References
1.

William.R. Proffit- Contemporary Orthodontics,3rd Edition.—Henry
W.Fields.JR 3rd Edition Mosby - 2000.

2.

Ravindra Nanda. Biomechanics in clinical orthodontics. W.B.
Saunders Co. 1997.

3.

Thorstenson, Kusy. G. Effect of archwire size & material on the
resistance to sliding of self ligating brackets with the second order
angulation in the dry state. AJO DO 2002; 122: 295-305.

4.

Loftus B., Artun, Nichols, Alonzo, Stoner. Evaluation of friction
during sliding tooth movement in various bracket arch wire
combinations. AJO DO 1999; 116: 336-45.

www.indiandentalacademy.com
5.

P.Emile Rousseou. Friction: An overview. Seminars in
Orthodontics: Vol 9 No 4 (2003). 218-22

6.

Nishio, da Motta, Elias, Mucha. In vitro evaluation of frictional
forces between archwires & ceramic brackets. AJO-DO 2004; 125 :
56-64.

7.

Zufall S, Kusy R. Sliding mechanics of coated composite wires &
the development of an engineering model for binding. Angle
orhtod. 2000. 70: 34-47.

8.

Frank C, Nikolai R. A comparative study of frictional resistances
between orthodontic bracket & arch wire. Am J Orthod. 1980
Dec;78(6):593-609.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
9. Drescher D, Bourel C., Schumacher H. Frictional forces
between bracket & archwire. AJO-DO 1989: 96 : 397404.
10. Khambay, Millett, Mc Hugh. Evaluation of methods of
archwire ligation on frictional resistance. EJO 2004;
(26) 327-332.
11. Henao S, Kusy.R. Evaluation of frictional resistance of
conventional & self ligating bracket designs using
standardized archwires & Dental typodonts. Angle
Orthod. 2004; 74: 202-211.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
12. Thorstenson, Kusy R. Comparison of resistance to sliding between
different self ligating brackets with second order angulation in the
dry & saliva states. AJO DO 2002; 121: 472-82.
13. Kusy R. Whithey J. Frictional resistances of metal lined ceramic
brackets versus conventional stainless steel brackets and
development of 3-D friction maps. Angle Orthod. 2001; 71:364-374.
14. Cacciafesta, Sfondrini, Scribante, Klevsy Aurichio-Evaluation of
friction of conventional & metal insert ceramic brackets in various
bracket archwire combination. AJO DO 2003; 124 (4): 395-402.
15. Thorstenson G., Kusy R. influence of stainless steel inserts on the
resistance to sliding of esthetic brackets with second order
angulation in dry & wet states. Angle Orthod. 2003. 73(4): 418-30.

www.indiandentalacademy.com
16. Kapur R, Sinha P, Nanda R; Comparison of frictional
resistance in titanium & stainless steel brackets. AJO DO
1999; 116:271-4.
17. Articolo, Kusy. Influence of angulation on the resistance to
sliding in fixed appliances. AJO DO 1999; 115:39-51.
18. Kusy,R. Influence of binding of third order torques to
second order angulation. AJO DO 2004; 125: 726-32.
19. Kusy RP, Whitley JQ. Friction between different
wirebracket configurations and materials. Seminars
Orthod 1997;3:166-177.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Thank you
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Leader in continuing dental education

www.indiandentalacademy.com

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Friction in orthodontics /fixed orthodontic courses

  • 2. INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY Leader in continuing dental education www.indiandentalacademy.com www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 3. Contents • • • • Introduction Laws of friction Static & dynamic friction Sliding mechanics effect of bracket. archwire. ligation. biological factors. • Conclusions. • References. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 4. Introduction • Definition - Two materials touching one another share a contact area. The resistance to movement tangent to this area, of one material relative to the other, is known as friction. • The frictional force is proportional to the force with which the contacting surfaces are pressed together and is affected by the nature of the surface at the interface (rough or smooth, chemically reactive or passive, modified by lubricants, etc.) www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 5. • Orthodontic space closure is achieved through 2 types of mechanics. 1. Segmental or sectional mechanics - is made of closing loops fabricated in either a full or sectional archwire. Advantage - lack of frictional forces between the bracket and archwire during space closure. Disadvantages - time consumed in fabricating loops, as well as undesired tooth rotations in the sagittal & transverse planes, resulting in increased leveling requirements. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 6. 2. Sliding mechanics - involves either moving brackets along an archwire or sliding the archwire through brackets & tubes. This results in decreased adverse rotational movements but leads to friction, which results in delay in tooth movement, increase in anchorage requirements, or both. Therefore the name friction mechanics is often associated with it. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 7. • The portion of applied force lost due to resistance to sliding can range from 12- 60%. (Kusy et al Sem Orthod 1997) • High frictional forces affect the efficiency of treatment, result in increased treatment time, & compromise results because of loss of anchorage. It will also impact on the M/F ratios of teeth and consequently their centers of rotation. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 8. • Friction may exist between two solid surfaces, at a solidfluid interface, or between fluid layers. • Friction between solids is termed rolling or sliding, depending upon the form of relative movement attempted; rolling resistance is highly dependent on the amount of localized deformation where contact occurs. • The resistance that precludes actual motion is termed static friction; • that which exists during motion is called dynamic friction. • Both the static and dynam-ics forms of sliding friction are of orthodontic interest. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 9. • Sliding friction is generated between arch wire and bracket when the wire "guides" the bracket during mesiodistal movement of an individual tooth or when the arch wire is slipped through posterior crown attachments in, for example, the retraction of an anterior dental segment. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 11. • In the late 15th century, Leonardo Da Vinci proposed the two basic laws of sliding friction. • Frictional resistance to sliding is, firstly, proportional to the load and, secondly, independent of the apparent area of the sliding interfaces. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 12. The Laws of Friction First law • States that the frictional force is proportional to the applied load (that is, the normal force, N) by a constant, the coefficient of friction (u). • In orthodontics, all couples follow this first law without exception. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 13. Second law • States that the coefficient of friction is independent of apparent contact area. • This statement will be true if the contacting surfaces can plastically deform (that is, "yield") until the appropriate actual contact area is attained. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 14. • As stated, this law is usually obeyed both in materials science in general and in orthodontics in particular www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 15. The third law/Coulomb's Law • The coefficient of friction of a couple is independent of the sliding velocity. • This third law, is usually not obeyed in materials science or in orthodontics. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 16. • Friction is independent of the apparent area of contact. This is because all surfaces, no matter how smooth, have irregularities that are large on a molecular scale, and real contact occurs only at a limited number of small spots at the peaks of the surface irregularities. • These spots, called asperities. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 17. • Asperities carry all the load between the two surfaces; Even under light loads, local pressure at the asperities may cause appreciable plastic deformation of those small areas. • Because of this, the true contact area is to a considerable extent determined by the applied load and is directly proportional to it. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 18. • When a tangential force is applied to cause one material to slide past the other, the junctions begin to shear. • The coefficient of friction then is proportional to the shear strength of the junctions and is inversely proportional to the yield strength of the materials (because this determines the extent of plastic deformation at the asperities.) • At low sliding speeds, a "stick-slip" phenomenon may occur as enough force builds up to shear the junctions and a jump occurs, then the surfaces stick again until enough force again builds to break them. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 19. • Two other factors can affect the resistance to sliding: • The interlocking of surface irregularities, (when the asperities are large or pointed); • The extent to which asperities on a harder material plow into the surface of a softer one. • Thus the total frictional resistance will be the sum of three components: 1. The force necessary to shear all junctions, 2. The resistance caused by the interlocking of roughness, and 3. The plowing component of the total friction force. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 20. • In practice, if the two materials are relatively smooth and not greatly dissimilar in hardness, friction is largely determined by the shearing component. • Friction is a factor in orthodontic anchorage control, particularly for space closure with fixed appliances. • Frictional resistance to sliding arch wires against brackets can be reduced by modifying any or all of the major factors discussed above, but it cannot be totally eliminated. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 21. VARIABLES AFFECTING FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE DURING TOOTH MOVEMENT A. PHYSICAL VARIABLES: 1. Archwire: a) Material b) Cross sectional shape/ size. c) Surface texture. d) Stiffness. 2. Ligation of archwire to bracket: a) Ligature wires. b) Elastomerics c) Method of ligation/Self ligating brackets www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 22. 3. Bracket: a) Material b) Manufacturing process. c) Slot width and depth. d) Design of bracket: single/twin. e) First order bend (in-out) f) Second order bend (angulation). g) Third order bend (torque). 4. Orthodontic appliance: a) Inter bracket distance. b) Level of bracket slots between adjacent teeth. c) Forces applied for retraction. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 23. B. BIOLOGICAL VARIABLES: a) Saliva b) Plaque c) Acquired pellicle. d) Corrosion. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 24. Effect of archwire on kinetic friction: • Wire material: • Most studies have found stainless steel wires to be associated with the least amount of friction. This is further backed up by specular reflectance studies which show that stainless steel wires have the smoothest surface, followed by Co-Cr, -Ti, and NiTi in order of increasing surface roughness. • Kusy & Whitney (1990) investigated the correlation between surface roughness & frictional characteristics. They found Stainless steel to have least coefficient of friction & the smoothest surface. However - titanium showed greater friction compared to Ni Ti , though the latter was rougher. • Hence they concluded that surface roughness cannot be used as an indicator of frictional characteristics in sliding mechanics. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 25. • The reason whey titanium has a higher coefficient of friction than Ni-Ti is because of its higher titanium content (79W/W%), which results in increased adherence or cold welding of wire to bracket slot (slip-stick effect). • Frank & Nikolai (1980) found that Stainless Steel had less friction than NiTi at nonbinding angulations but as angulation increased & binding was present, SS showed more friction. • According to Thorstenson & Kusy (AJO –DO 2002), the binding component appears to be influenced by the product E x I of the archwires ( E= modules or elasticity & I = moment of inertia). Smaller, more flexible archwires such as 14 mil NiTi exhibit less binding (BI) than larger, less flexible archwires such as 19 x 25 mil SS wires. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 26. Clinical consideration: • Larger, stiffer archwires are generally used during final stages of treatment when retaining the tooth position is the objective. The additional resistance to sliding (RS) between the bracket & archwire might further prevent movement of teeth. • Loftus et al (AJO 1999) evaluated friction during sliding movement in various bracket-arch wire combinations. They reported that NiTi produced the least amount of frictions followed by SS & -Ti in increasing order. As the angulation (& hence binding) of the wire was increased, there was greater increase in frictional forces with SS than with NiTi. They suggested that the flexibility of NiTi may contribute to a decrease in the normal force at the points or contact between bracket & archwire. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 27. • Nishio et al (AJO-DO Jan 2004) performed an in vitro study to evaluate frictional forces between various archwires & ceramic brackets. They found that titanium showed the highest frictional force, followed by NiTi & SS wires. They suggest that elastic properties of the wire are secondary & surface texture has more influence on frictional force. • Zufall & Kusy (Angle Orthod. 2000): Studied the sliding mechanics of composite orthodontic archwires with a coating of polychloro-p-xylene. The coating eliminated the risk of glass release from the wire. Also frictional & binding coefficients were within the limits outlined by the conventional orthodontic wire-bracket couples. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 28. • Wire Size: • Several studies have found an increase in wire size to be associated with increased bracket-wire friction. In general, at non-binding angulations, rectangular wires produce more friction than round wires. However, at binding angulations, the bracket slot can bite into the wire at one point, causing an indentation in the wire. • However, with a rectangular wire, the force is distributed over a larger area ie. the facio-lingual dimension, resulting in less pressure & less resistance to movement. This may account for the finding of Frank & Nikolai that an 020” wire was associated with more friction than the 017 x 025” wire. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 29. • Wire stiffness & clearance: • Mechanically speaking, orthodontic wires are elastic beams, supported at one or both ends. Force applied on such an elastic beam causes a deflection, which is reversible within elastic limit of the material. Stiffer wires are less springy & deflect less for a given force. • Doubling the diameter of a wire increases the stiffness by a factor of 16, when supported at one end, & by a factor of 4, when supported between two brackets. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 30. • Doubling the length of a cantilever beam decreases stiffness by a factor of 8. • During canine retraction in a premolar extraction case the increased inter bracket span of unsupported wire over the extraction site decreases the stiffness of wire. Retraction force, therefore has a greater chance of deflecting the wire, resulting in buckling. To prevent such deflections, which may increase friction & chances of bracket binding, the diameter of wire should be increased to compensate for decrease in stiffness when interbracket span is greater than normal. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 31. • For rectangular wires, stiffness is also dependent on cross sectional dimension in the direction of bending. In other words an 017 x 022” wire is more springy in the vertical direction when it is placed edgewise rather than flatwise. • Drescher et al (AJO-DO 1989) stated that friction depends primarily on the vertical dimension of the wire. An 016” stainless steel round wire and an 016 x 022” stainless steel rectangular wire showed virtually the same amount of friction. This was however lower than that for 018X025” wires. The authors state that for mesiodistal tooth movement, rectangular wire is preferred because of its additional feature of buccolingual root control. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 32. • As the stiffness of a beam is dependent on the support at both ends of the beam, during canine retraction, the premolar and lateral incisor brackets should be tied tightly to archwire. This will increase the stiffness of the wire as well as increase friction in the premolar bracket, thus minimizing anchorage loss. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 33. Effect of Ligation Technique on Friction : • The normal force exerted by the ligature has a significant influence in determining the frictional resistance developed within an orthodontic system. This force has been estimated to be between 50-300g, and upto 375g in one study. • Various methods of ligation are available: - stainless steel ligatures, elastomeric modules, polymeric coated modules and finally the self ligating brackets, which may be having a spring clip (Hanson SPEED and Adenta Time) which pushes the wire into place, or it may have a passive clip which does not press on the wire (Activa and Damon II brackets.) www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 34. • Elastomeric ligatures are adversely affected by the oral environment, and demonstrate stress relaxation with time and great individual variation in properties. • Stainless steel ligatures can be tied too tight or too loose depending on the clinicians technique. • Self ligating brackets with a passive clip have been shown to generate negligible friction. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 35. • Edwards et al (BJO 1995) compared the frictional forces produced when elastomeric modules were applied conventionally or in a “figure of –8” configuration, stainless steel ties or Teflon coated ligatures were used for archwire ligation. The “figure of 8” modules appeared to create the highest friction. There was no significant difference in mean frictional force between the conventional module and the SS ligature, but the Teflon coated ligature had the lowest mean frictional force. • Dowling et al (BJO 1998) investigated the frictional forces of differently colored modules & found the clear modules to exhibit significantly lower friction than other modules. This study however was carried out in absence of saliva. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 36. • Khambay et al (EJO 2004) compared the effect of elastomeric type and stainless steel ligation on frictional resistance and these were further compared with selfligating Damon II brackets. There was no consistent pattern in the mean frictional forces across the various combinations of wire size, type, and ligation method. The polymeric coated module did not produce the lowest mean frictional force. The introduction of a 45 bend into the module (Alastik Easy-to-use) reduced mean frictional force to that of a SS ligature when using 19 x 25” SS wire. The use of metal ligatures with 7 turns produced the lowest friction confirming the findings of Bazakidon et al (AJO-DO 97). They concluded that the use of passive self ligating brackets is the only may of almost eliminating friction. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 37. • Thorstenson & Kusy (AJO 2002): investigated the RS for 3 self ligating brackets with passive slides (Activa, Damon & Twinlock) and 3 self ligating brackets with active clips (In-ovation, SPEED, Time), with second order angulation, in dry and saliva states. They reported that for second order angulations c, the RS of selfligating brackets is small to non-existent regardless of saliva state, thus facilitating siding mechanics, but compromising root position. The RS of brackets with active clips was higher being in range of 1247CN (dry state) and (22-54CN) wet State, respectively. • They reported that in the active state ( > c), the rate of binding is similar, regardless of presence of passive slide or active clip. • According to them “The desire to minimize the RS should be moderated by the necessity to control tooth movement”. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 38. • Henao & Kusy (Angle orthod. 2004) compared the frictional resistance of conventional & self ligating brackets using various archwire sized. They reported that self ligating brackets exhibited superior performance when coupled with smaller wires used in early stages of orthodontic treatment. However when larger 016 x 022” and 019 x 025” AW were tested, the differences between selfligating & conventional brackets were not so evident. This shows that self ligating brackets have the ability to maintain low frictional resistance only upto a certain size of archwire. It also emphasizes the importance of leveling and alignment before using larger wires & sliding mechanics. • www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 39. Effect of Bracket on Friction : • a. Bracket material : • Angle used a gold prototype of edgewise brackets over 75 years ago. In 1933, Dr. Archie Brusse presented a table clinic on the first stainless steel appliance system. Since then SS brackets have displaced gold. Because they were stiffer & stronger, SS brackets could be made smaller, in effect increasing their esthetics via their reduced dimension. Their frictional characteristics were so satisfactory that they are today’s standard of the profession. However, conventional cast stainless steel has met its competitor in the sintered variety. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 40. • The technology of sintering, the process of fusing individual particles together after compacting them under heat & pressure allows each bracket to be premolded in a smooth streamlined manner. The SS particles are compressed in a contoured, smooth, rounded shape as opposed to the older casting procedure in which the milling or cutting process left sharp, angular brackets, which were bulky and rough. Investigations comparing these two varieties with various archwire sizes at the Univ. of Oklahoma revealed that for most wire sizes, sintered stainless steel brackets produced significantly lower friction than cast SS brackets. (upto 3844% less friction.) This difference in frictional forces could be attributed to smoother surface texture of sintered SS material. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 41. • Plastic brackets first appeared in around 1970, and these were injection molded from an aromatic polymer called polycarbonate. These were meant to be esthetic but were subject to stains & odors. Moreover these plastic brackets deformed plastically under load & showed creep with time. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 42. • About 10 years passed before the first ceramic brackets were developed. In spite of their superior esthetics, their frictional properties are far inferior to stainless steel. Highly magnified views have revealed numerous generalized small indentations in the ceramic bracket slot, while SS brackets appear relatively smooth. Single crystal ceramic brackets are derived by milling large single alumina crystals into the derived shape & size via ultrasonic or diamond cutting or a combination of these two processes. Polycrystalline ceramic brackets are sintered together using special binders to fuse the particles together. Laser speculance & SEM have shown monocrystalline brackets to be smoother than polycrystalline ones, but their frictional characteristics were comparable. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 43. • Clinical significance: • Since ceramic brackets on anterior teeth are often used in combination with stainless steel brackets and tubes on premolar and molar teeth, retracting canines along an archwire may result in greater loss of anchorage because of higher frictional force associated with ceramic than steel brackets. Greater caution in preserving anchorage must be exerted in such situation. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 44. • Zirconia brackets: • In order to overcome the problem of brittleness & low fracture resistance associated with ceramic brackets, Zirconia brackets were offered as an alternative. But these were found to have friction coefficients equal to or greater than ceramic brackets. They also showed surface changes consisting of wire debris and surface damage to brackets after sliding of arch wires. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 45. • Metal lined ceramic Brackets: • In the last few years, it has been recognized that ceramics have desirable esthetics but other materials have superior frictional characteristics. Consequently, as stainless steel and a gold liner have now been placed in a polycrystalline Alumina bracket. • These metal inserted products capitalize on the best of both worlds, namely, pleasing esthetics and competitive frictional characteristics, both in the presence & absence of saliva. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 46. • Kusy & Whitley (Angle Orthod. 2001) evaluated a stainless steel lined polycrystalline alumina bracket (Clarity, 3M*/Unitek) and an 18kt gold lined polycrystalline allumina bracket (Luxi, RMO Corp), and compared these with SS brackets as controls. They found that in the dry state, Luxi has the lowest resistance to sliding compared to Clarity and the SS brackets. This can be attributed to the presence of a non-oxidizing surface of 18kt gold. In the wet state, Luxi performs similarly to SS brackets, Clarity, shows higher resistance to sliding in the wet state. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 47. • Cacciafesta, et al (AJO-DO Oct 2003) reported that when tested with SS, NiTi, and TMA wires, metal-insert ceramic brackets (clarity) generated significantly lower frictional forces than conventional ceramic brackets, but higher values than stainless steel brackets, in agreement with findings of previous report. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 48. • Thorstenson & Kusy (Angle Ortho 2003) studied the influence of Stainless Steel inserts on RS of esthetic brackets with 2nd order angulation in dry & wet states. According to them, at angles when clearance no longer existed, the resistance to sliding for esthetic brackets with & without inserts generally increased with angulation at a rate equal or greater than SS bracketsexcept for polycarbonate brackets which underwent elastic deformation and then had lower RS. They concluded that the addition of SS inserts did not considerably improve RS over esthetic brackets without inserts. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 49. Titanium brackets • These were introduced to the profession in response to reports about corrosion of stainless steel brackets & sensitivity to nickel present in the alloy. • Kapur, Sinha & Nanda (AJO-DO 1999) compared the levels of frictional resistance generated between titanium & SS brackets, using a universal Instron machine. The results of the study showed that SS brackets had higher static & kinetic frictional force values as the wire size increased. (Rectangular SS wire). For the titanium brackets however, friction decreased as wire size increased. They stated that the desirable qualities of Ti such as low rigidity, superelasticity & shape memory allow early engagement of full size wire during treatment, allow the bracket to elastically deform, and create a reactive working environment for 3-D control of orthodontic tooth movement with rectangular wires. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 50. • Kusy & Q’Grady (AJO-DO 2000) compared the resistance to sliding of Stainless Steel & titanium brackets using SS & -Ti wires. They reported that although RS increased with angulation & normal force, the passive layer in both types did not break down. Titanium brackets remained comparable to SS brackets in the active configuration & are a suitable substitute for SS in sliding mechanics. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 51. • 3 b. Bracket slot width: • Bracket slot width refers to the bracket dimension in the mesial distal direction. The effect of bracket width on friction has been controversial. Some studies have found bracket width to have no effect on friction. While others have found frictional resistance to increased with bracket width. Yet others have reported a decrease in friction with an increase in bracket width. • Frank & Nikolai (AJO 1980) related greater friction with a wider bracket to the fact that binding occurs frequently at smaller degrees of angulation with wider brackets than with narrow brackets. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 52. • Kapila et al (AJO-DO 1990) reported that 018” slot sized medium twin brackets were associated with 1.5 times more friction than narrow single brackets, while wide twin brackets produced twice as much friction. Medium twin & wide twin 022” brackets also produced more friction than narrow single 022” brackets. • They suggested that with a wider bracket the elastomeric ligature was stretched more than with a narrow bracket, producing almost twice as much friction, due to greater normal force exerted on the wire. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 53. • Drescher et al (AJO-DO 1989), Beduar et al (AJO-DO 91) & Omana et al (JCO 1992) suggested that with a narrow bracket, the tooth could tip considerably before binding occurred & once binding occurred it was of a severe nature, which resisted further sliding of the archwire. Bracket width is closely related to interbracket distance. The narrower the bracket, the greater the interbracket wire, and the greater the flexibility of the wire. This may result in greater chance of binding with the more flexible wire. Also, narrow brackets have the disadvantage of less rotational & tipping control due to smaller section of archwire engaged within the slot. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 54. • 3(c) Second order bend (angulation): • Resistance to sliding occurs when closing or regaining space with sliding mechanics. In the passive condition, ie. when the archwire and bracket have clearance, classical friction (FR) is the only existing component of RS. In this condition, the angulation ( ) between the archwire & the bracket is less than the critical angle ( c) where the wire contacts both ends of the bracket slot. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 55. • When clearance disappears and an interference fit occurs, ( = c) binding arises as a second component of RS. • Frictional forces are determined in vitro by keeping a fixed second order bracket- wire deflection system are not likely to be representative of the in vivo condition. In the clinical situation, second order deflections of wire between brackets held in series can have significant effects on bracket wire friction. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 56. • Frank & Nikolai (1980) found that frictional resistance increased in a NON LINEAR manner with increased bracket angulation. • Ogata et al (AJO DO 1994) also noted that as second order deflection increased, frictional resistance was found to increase for every bracket-wire combination evaluated by them. The friction increased appeared in 2 phases: • With lower deflections: - A smooth sliding phase appeared in which friction increased in an approximately linear manner. • As deflection increased further: A binding phase occurred in which friction increased at a higher, non-linear rate. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 57. • Clinical Significance: • For patients requiring maximum anchorage protection, complete leveling of the arch prior to using sliding mechanics is imperative. This will reduce the force required for retraction of the teeth because the frictional resistance will be decreased. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 58. • Articolo & Kusy (AJO-DO 1999) studied the resistance to sliding as a function of five angulations (0 , 3 , 7 , 11 , 13 ) using a different combinations, of SS, monocrystalline, or polycrystalline ceramic brackets against SS, NiTi or -Ti archwires. When the couples were in the passive configuration at low angulation, all stainless steel wire bracket couples had the least resistance to sliding. When angulation was >3 , active configuration emerged and binding quickly dominated, with RS increasing over 100 fold. • Under these conditions, couples of SS had the highest RS. While couples of the more compliant alloys such as NiTi had the least. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 59. • 3 d) The role of third order torque: • When torque is applied to the wire, its projected size is larger than the actual size of the wire. This further decreases the clearance between the archwire & the bracket and contributes to frictional resistance to sliding. • Kusy (AJO-DO 2004) evaluated the onset of binding for 3 scenarios • Second order angulation alone. • Third order torque only. • Combination of second order angulation & third order torque. • He found that each wire-slot combination has a common maximum torque angle, independent of bracket width. He suggests that the use of a metric 0.5mm slot might have some advantages with regard to torquing. Wires can be used that apply lighter forces while maintaining angulation and torque capabilities, which were once possible only with larger wires. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 60. • BIOLOGIC VARIABLES : • Saliva: • It is suggested that saliva or a saliva substitute serves as an excellent lubricant in the sliding of the bracket along the wire. • Baker et al (AJO-DO 1987) using an artificial saliva substitute found a 15% to 19% reduction in friction. • Kusy et al (Angle Orthod 1991): found that saliva could have lubricous as well as adhesive behavior depending on which archwire-bracket combination was under consideration. Stainless steel wires showed an adhesive behavior with saliva & a resultant increase in the coefficient of friction in the wet state. The kinetic coefficients of friction of the -Ti archwire in the wet state were 50% of the values of the dry state. This probably occurred because saliva prevented the solid to solid contact between the -Ti archwires and SS brackets, & thus prevented the slipstick phenomenon from occurring. (The slip-stick phenomenon occurs when -Ti wire slides through SS brackets & the TiO2 layer breaks down, adheres & breaks away). www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 61. • Therefore, especially in adult patients, a history of xerostomia or reduced salivary flow, oral radiation therapy, or anticholinergic medication should be noted as possible factors in varying the force levels necessary to more teeth. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 62. REDUCING FRICTION & IMPROVING ARCH MECHANICS THROUGH SURFACE CHEMISTY • Two principal approaches are available for improving arch mechanics: • Coating onto the surface:  This includes metal plating, chemical vapor deposition solvated polymers, plasma deposition (PD), and diamond like coatings (DLC) • Implanting into the substrate:  This includes carburizing, nitriding, ion implantation (II), and a hybrid process of ion implantation called ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD) www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 63. • Ion Implantation: • A ballistic process in which any element can be embedded into the surface of substrate. The principal advantage of the process is that surface properties can be tailored while bulk properties & tolerances remain uncharged. Today Ion implantation (II) is used commercially to reduce static & kinetic coefficients of friction of -Titanium wires. The implantation of ions causes amorphisation of the surface by forming a coherent, metastable case protecting the bulk material. This reduces the slip-stick phenomenon. The implantation of stainless steel brackets with N+/C+ resulted in a systematic reduction in friction, when tested against archwires made from titanium alloys. (Kusy, Andrews 1990) www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 64. • Plasma Enhanced parylene: • In the plasma process, materials are energized until they are ionized. If diparaxylylene is vaporised, pyrolised into paraxylene and injected into a vacuum chamber containing the orthodontic appliance it can polymerise onto these surfaces as a pinhole free, clear, chemically inert polymer in a coating as thin as 2.5 m. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 65. • To date, PEP coatings have shown outstanding potential when apply to PCA and tested against SS wires. Also, when -Ti archwires were tested against, PEP coating, the values were half that of control couples. So far, PEP coating remains the only viable candidate as a biocompatible, biostable coating for orthodontic applications. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 66. • Diamond like carbon (DLC): • The use of “diamond like carbon” is an attempt to combine the best properties of diamond (i.e hardness) with the best properties of graphite (low frictional coefficient). However, the major disadvantage associated with it is poor esthetics. Also, the results achieved with DLC coated couples have proved to be disappointing. • www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 67. Conclusions Based on information gathered from studies of friction several points of clinical significance can be identified. • An appreciation of magnitude of friction is crucial for the orthodontist who employs sliding mechanics during treatment - With best of wire bracket combinations atleast 40g of friction must be included in force applied to initiate tooth movement. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 68. • New bracket designs and manufacturing techniques have been introduced to decreased the amount of friction generated between wire and bracket slot. - Sintered SS brackets. - Bracket designs limiting force of ligation (Self ligating brackets) • Clinicians using esthetic tooth colored brackets - important to know the level of friction generated by these brackets before initiating tooth movement www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 69. • Selection of wire shapes and sizes: e.g.: 0.018 inch SS steel best choice for canine retraction in 0.022 slot. - If overall torque control is required: 0.016x 0.022 inch - 0.018 slot. 0.019x0.025 inch - 0.022 slot. Archwire can also be thinned down in region distal to canine so as to further facilitate movement. Care must be taken not to over reduce the wire dimensions which could decreased strength of wire www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 70. • Complete leveling of arch - important factor in reducing friction during tooth movement. e.g.: Space closure using 0.019 x 0.025 wire in 0.022 slot. Before starting space closure rectangular wires need to be place for atleast 1 month. To ensure proper leveling and freedom from posterior torque pressure. Sliding mechanics can proceed smoothly www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 71. To optimize use of sliding mechanic sufficient time must be allowed for distal root movement to occur. A common mistake is to change the E-chain too often thus maintaining high force levels and a M/F ratio that produces distal tipping only. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 72. References 1. William.R. Proffit- Contemporary Orthodontics,3rd Edition.—Henry W.Fields.JR 3rd Edition Mosby - 2000. 2. Ravindra Nanda. Biomechanics in clinical orthodontics. W.B. Saunders Co. 1997. 3. Thorstenson, Kusy. G. Effect of archwire size & material on the resistance to sliding of self ligating brackets with the second order angulation in the dry state. AJO DO 2002; 122: 295-305. 4. Loftus B., Artun, Nichols, Alonzo, Stoner. Evaluation of friction during sliding tooth movement in various bracket arch wire combinations. AJO DO 1999; 116: 336-45. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 73. 5. P.Emile Rousseou. Friction: An overview. Seminars in Orthodontics: Vol 9 No 4 (2003). 218-22 6. Nishio, da Motta, Elias, Mucha. In vitro evaluation of frictional forces between archwires & ceramic brackets. AJO-DO 2004; 125 : 56-64. 7. Zufall S, Kusy R. Sliding mechanics of coated composite wires & the development of an engineering model for binding. Angle orhtod. 2000. 70: 34-47. 8. Frank C, Nikolai R. A comparative study of frictional resistances between orthodontic bracket & arch wire. Am J Orthod. 1980 Dec;78(6):593-609. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 74. 9. Drescher D, Bourel C., Schumacher H. Frictional forces between bracket & archwire. AJO-DO 1989: 96 : 397404. 10. Khambay, Millett, Mc Hugh. Evaluation of methods of archwire ligation on frictional resistance. EJO 2004; (26) 327-332. 11. Henao S, Kusy.R. Evaluation of frictional resistance of conventional & self ligating bracket designs using standardized archwires & Dental typodonts. Angle Orthod. 2004; 74: 202-211. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 75. 12. Thorstenson, Kusy R. Comparison of resistance to sliding between different self ligating brackets with second order angulation in the dry & saliva states. AJO DO 2002; 121: 472-82. 13. Kusy R. Whithey J. Frictional resistances of metal lined ceramic brackets versus conventional stainless steel brackets and development of 3-D friction maps. Angle Orthod. 2001; 71:364-374. 14. Cacciafesta, Sfondrini, Scribante, Klevsy Aurichio-Evaluation of friction of conventional & metal insert ceramic brackets in various bracket archwire combination. AJO DO 2003; 124 (4): 395-402. 15. Thorstenson G., Kusy R. influence of stainless steel inserts on the resistance to sliding of esthetic brackets with second order angulation in dry & wet states. Angle Orthod. 2003. 73(4): 418-30. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 76. 16. Kapur R, Sinha P, Nanda R; Comparison of frictional resistance in titanium & stainless steel brackets. AJO DO 1999; 116:271-4. 17. Articolo, Kusy. Influence of angulation on the resistance to sliding in fixed appliances. AJO DO 1999; 115:39-51. 18. Kusy,R. Influence of binding of third order torques to second order angulation. AJO DO 2004; 125: 726-32. 19. Kusy RP, Whitley JQ. Friction between different wirebracket configurations and materials. Seminars Orthod 1997;3:166-177. www.indiandentalacademy.com
  • 77. Thank you www.indiandentalacademy.com Leader in continuing dental education www.indiandentalacademy.com